Anthropology Optional Complete Course in 14 Hours | Simplified Series | UPSC CSE | StudyIQ IAS

Study Ik is now preparing an affordable anthropology optionals, an optional about which people often say that the syllabus is structured very well, whose definition of the syllabus is very appropriate for the purpose of preparation, is concise and shorter in length. Even after that, if we cover this syllabus, then in the live batch that you are watching, which we are launching from April 24, you must have seen the course details that it is a comprehensive 400 + 800 lecture that is going to take to complete the syllabus. Of course, there are lectures included. Still, if you ask someone, if you are telling them in detail about 400 lectures, then how quickly can we cover it? Can it be 200 hours, meaning half of the time duration that is appropriately kept for the completion of the syllabus, or even half of that, 100 hours, or someone might tell you that the anthropology syllabus will be finished in 50 hours. So, we have brought a surprise for you, different from all these, and to finish the anthropology syllabus, which you can see on the board, we are going to take a time duration of 14 hours. Of course, it will not be in-depth in that way, but for those aspirants who are speaking to revise the syllabus before the examination, when you are in a preparatory phase, you want that whatever you have studied, the outline, the broader things, what you are forgetting, what you need to remember, all of that should be finished as quickly as possible, so that it doesn't take too much of your time. You keep a time period of maximum two days, or at most three days, for Paper One and Paper Two, which comprises about 500 marks in total, which is also equal to fully 28%. So, to make this easier for you, we are going to take as little time as possible, and that is 14 hours.

The 14-year exile of Shri Ram, the story of Shri Ram, and when Shri Ram comes from this exile, he is Maryada Purushottam. He has fulfilled the victory of Dharma, the victory of truth, over truth, over Dharma. He has completed a target goal. Taking inspiration from this victory, we are starting our new series here. You know that in the month of April, where we surprise you, make you happy, we have brought three good news for you. The first one was our batch which is going to start from April 21st, and it will complete your entire target. Many things are included in that batch, which we will tell you. The second is Amber and Amber, the most comprehensive text for preparation, most recommended, most sorted, mentioned everywhere wherever anthropology is discussed, we are doing a lecture series on it, and you will keep getting its videos continuously. And the third is a gift for you from our side, from myself, and from Study Well. In 14 hours, we are going to give you the main points of the entire syllabus in a summarized form, in a concise form. I hope you felt good hearing this, there must be excitement. I am also excited to start it. It is going to be a challenge for me too, how we will finish in 14 hours what is finished here in 4 hours. And trust me, we are going to make it happen. You just have to stay with me.

Now, without wasting any time, in this first video of the session, what are we going to discuss? It is divided into different parts. The first part is the introductory part of anthropology. After that, we will come to social anthropology, archaeological anthropology, and so on. In this manner, we are going to complete the entire summary of anthropology UPSC optional in just 14 hours, around 14 hours. That will be plus or minus a few minutes. Of course, we will be in a hurry with a clock in our hand, taking all the time, keeping in mind whether it's 14 hours or not, but of course, we will finish it around that time frame. From here, the first unit we have selected is Unit 1.1, which comes under Paper One. In the entire video, in this entire segment, we have started with one and restructured it according to the syllabus. Things that are more similar to each other have been kept together so that it is easy for you to understand. The first point, or the first unit, 1.1, tells us about the meaning, scope, and development of anthropology. So, what is anthropology? What is the meaning of anthropology? And what is the scope of anthropology?

So, anthropology is a discipline like any other discipline that talks about a particular theme or a particular principle, and what is that particular principle? It is hidden in its name. If this is not visible, we can use darker shades here. I think the yellow shades are quite visible to you. And the purpose is that this word, formed by the combination of "Anthropos" + "Logos," these two Greek terms, from which it is said that from the combination of these two, the modern referencing or modern terminology of anthropology exists, it develops and evolves from them and comes before us. So, the word "Anthropos" basically means human or humankind. It is not talking about male or female. It already stands for study, most of the time, the principle in a scientific notation, in a scientific perspective, it reads its value or its central point, which is human. That is why you can call it the scientific study of man. So, in the shortest phrasing, if anyone asks you, what is anthropology? You will say it is the scientific study of man, or humankind, or mankind. So, here you are studying about humans. Now, you will ask, what are you studying about humans? And what is so different that you are presenting it like this?

So, you can tell them that anthropology as a discipline studies man in a holistic frame. This is its specialty, and it is also a key concept and a trademark word that you should always enter into your mind. The word "holistic" or a 360-degree approach to studying human beings through time and space. Here, the discipline is trying to study, understand, and know humans from all sides, and it is before you to study and understand this by transcending the boundaries of time and space. Now, if we ask how it is different from other disciplines, it does not leave any aspect. That is why it is holistic. For example, in polity or political science, you are studying humans in their comparative way, or you can say, in terms of the present society, its polity, its political structures, political practices, leaders, many acts, many thoughts, you are studying all those things. In anthropology, human beings have many parts, and polity is also a part of their life. Polity is just focusing on the political aspect of human beings, but anthropology is studying human beings. They don't just do politics. Political science goes through many aspects. There, they are also getting married. They are also studying. They are also forming families. There, their relationships with people, which you call kinship, are also being formed. Many such processes are continuously happening. There is also their history, meaning the past, and the present is also visible. They are going to different geographical locations, different regions. They are interacting with ecology or the environment. They follow many ethics, many values, many norms, many practices.

Now, you might be thinking why I am telling you the entire syllabus of the GS paper with just related words. I am telling you by focusing on all these words so that you understand how anthropology encompasses everything related to humans, whether it is polity, whether it is their history, past and present, whether you are talking about their geographical presence, geographical distribution, meaning human geography, or you are talking about their interaction related to it, in terms of ecology and environment, or you are talking about their principles of values, their ethics. All of that is a different part of human life. All these other disciplines study those different parts, whereas anthropology is trying to study and understand the entire thing. There are many aspects. I have only talked in terms of the syllabus. Humans are also doing business, so there is a discipline named after it. Within this, there is a sub-area called business and anthropology. In marketing, it goes into the digital world. So, there is another sub-discipline called digital media anthropology. Tourism is studied. There is tourism, medical practices, medical beliefs, healing processes, cultural syndromes. So, you are also studying and understanding medical anthropology. So, there are a lot of things that you are talking about. You are seeing and understanding all these things.

If we talk about it, it is immeasurable. From the ground to the sky, when we talk about space, what does it mean? It is not studying humans in a particular space. It is studying humans from the formation of this universe to their present evolutionary form. Meaning, it is also studying many intermediate forms. It is not just talking about India, not just talking about the place where you are standing. It is studying human beings across the globe, wherever there is the presence of life forms and humankind. So, it is not bound by a particular geography or space, not bound by a region. Secondly, you say it studies humans before time, meaning before written records of the past are present, meaning prehistory. From then until modern times, it studies humans. Meaning, from the past to the present. No other discipline studies so comprehensively in such a large time frame, transcending time. If you talk about history, then of course it goes up to protohistory. Although the talk of archaeology, which is prehistory, is often seen as separate from history, it is seen as a niche zone within it. But even if you combine it with history, it is still studying humans from the prehistoric time to the recent history. You are not saying that in history, you will not study that if today is a particular date, say X, then on X-1, meaning yesterday, an event happened, and you are being taught that in history. It cannot happen like that. It studies the recent past, but that is also a long time. For example, in history, you are studying Operation Blue Star, which is part of your modern history, part of post-independence. But that is also from many years ago. You are reading about different riots that have happened. You are reading about different bombings that you see. You are seeing the Prime Minister. But even though they are recent, they are seen as distant events. It is not that something happened today or yesterday, something happened this morning, and it is being taught in your anthropology. You are not bound by time. If something happened now, it is also a subject of interest in anthropology, and if something happened 5000 years ago, 5 lakh years ago, it is also of your interest. So, this is its meaning and scope. Scope means how far it extends. So, its scope is from the ground to the sky, transcending space and time, as we have explained to you. We have also explained the meaning to you.

The next thing you say is development. It happened in different phases, and many anthropologists argue about the fashion in which development happened. What came first? What will we explain first? So, in anthropology, initially, it is believed that two niche zones developed. Two different specialties that were almost simultaneous. One is that you were studying primitive societies, which you call tribal societies, tribal groups. You are studying such societies, such human populations. Initially, many anthropologists, or physical anthropologists, as you can call them, were called anthropologists. Their specialty was something else. For example, you talk about Blumenbach, he is called the father of American physical anthropology. You talk about Linnaeus, he is called the father of classical physical anthropology. So, in the initial phase, they tried to study different skulls, different forms, and by understanding them, what were they trying to do? By taking samples from all over the world, from different regions, not necessarily from the same region, maybe someone from Australia, someone from Africa, Netherlands, New Zealand, India. By looking at them, they were trying to understand the structure, understand the evolutionary patterning, and more deeply, or more interestingly, you could say, they were trying to understand ethnic variations, interpret that thing, how through different regions, through multiple ethnic groups, through different resistances, when you go, you see differences. When you read in the next lecture, the world is divided into three major races, of which one is usually related to European or American populations. The next is the Negro population, which you associate with the population. It is divided into these. Besides these, there are many other groups and subgroups. So, initially, anthropologists were doing just that, studying these ethnic variations, these developments you are seeing, these formations, these features. They were trying to understand the differences by looking at them. And along with this, what was happening was the study of primitive societies. One is the study of the past, or you can say ethnic study, and the other is the study of primitive societies. How did it start? So, a term is given here, which you call "salvage ethnography." What is it? So, you are seeing that to recognize and promote many things, for example, it was like this. Slowly, they were moving forward. There was not much funding and it was not well-structured. In the initial phase, what did they do all over the world? They saw that some groups, some communities, some cultures in the world are very unique in themselves and are disappearing. Slowly, their number is decreasing, their population is decreasing. They are so primitive that they do not have modern means of technology or production, and due to many reasons, they have not been able to stand up to the standards of modernization, not developed much. They are called primitive people for this reason. They are called primitive cultures for this reason. And many times, due to various diseases, their population is rapidly declining. Other people, people from other places, from modern developed societies, are encroaching on their land, driving them away from their places, or establishing them, which you call displacement. Due to all these things, it is so unique, so unique in itself. Before they disappear, we have to do two things. First, to study and understand their culture in great depth and record it. And second, we have to try to protect them, meaning we have to work together with an agency or organization that can help them. So, this culture came, which was looking at two things. One is recording the data, understanding the uniqueness of distinct societies, understanding their different aspects. It is trying to read the data. And the second is trying to save them from depleting and finally getting the population. Where you study the system of marriage, the system of kinship, polity, economy, all these things, which you also study in sociology. Many relationships are seen there. Besides this, many other different things are seen, where in physical anthropology, you are studying human growth, aging, races, somatotyping. There is a zone according to India, which you call Kin Anthropology. You are also seeing that. You are studying different forms of society. So, slowly, many things have come under its ambit, they have joined it. There is a saying, "chalta raha, badhta gaya" (kept moving, kept growing), and that is applicable to anthropology. Things will keep joining it. Alright, so you will see all these things in the first unit.

If you talk about the next unit, the relationship, how is it related? Because we talked about it, any subject, the study of business, the study of management, you are studying in MBA programs, you are studying computer applications, or you are in the humanities group, whether it is polity, someone is studying commerce, someone is studying economics, someone is studying geography, someone is studying history. Different subjects, but everything is focusing on what? What are they trying to study and understand? Human society. You study economics, but whose? You study polity, but whose? You are not studying animals. You are studying human populations. Whose history do you study? You are not studying the history of horses. You are studying the history of human beings. If you are studying management, then whose management are you studying? Or if you are studying computer applications, for whom are you studying robotics? All of them are related to humans.

And Anthropology, which is the study of humans in different disciplines, you are studying a particular aspect, and here you are studying humans in totality. So, naturally, there will be a relationship of Anthropology with every displacement. But a very important thing that students often forget to pay attention to, and sometimes even when writing answers in the Mains paper of UPSC, is that the problem is that they stop at the similarities of this relationship. They grasp one point. Someone might start telling similarities, someone might start telling differences. But when you are talking about a relationship, you are considering both these things, both aspects. For example, if you are talking about Social Sciences, there is Sociology, History, various things. What are the similarities between them and Anthropology? In similarities, you are also studying the history of humans, the past of humans. Here too, you are studying. There too, you are studying different institutions. For example, you talk about marriage, you talk about family, you talk about kinship, you talk about religion. Here too, you are studying. The differences, you can divide them on several fronts. One is that Anthropology studies everything holistically, which other branches do not. Here you get a relativistic approach, which you do not find elsewhere. Here you understand things through concepts, which you do not see or understand elsewhere. So, here there is a lot of emphasis on ethnographic data, which is not the case elsewhere. Here, a tool, technique, or method is used, which you call participant observation. Here, PO means Participant Observation, do not misunderstand it as Probationary Officer. So, these are all the tools and techniques that Anthropology uses. I think you might have to look at the color change here, but if you rewind the video by about 10 seconds, you can listen as I speak. Okay. I can repeat it once again. Holistic approach, relativistic approach, ethnographic, and participant observation. These are some keywords, technologies that might sound unfamiliar to you now, you might not understand them, but I would request you to write them down somewhere on the side. And if it is visible, you can take a screenshot of it. All these things make Anthropology distinctive from other disciplines. You get to know the similarities between disciplines, as we just discussed, in Social Sciences, you are studying the past of humans, the history of humans, different institutions, norms, values, social stratifications, the impact of various cultural processes. All those are similarities. Those disciplines are also studying, and we are also studying. When it comes to differences, you can divide them on several fronts. You can also use some other separate things, but these are the things that will be applicable in every difference of the university. Okay. You can also add time and space before this. It is called mnemonics, isn't it? It's a trick. You can use it like that. Wherever there is a difference, you can write this with your eyes closed. And what it means, we will tell you slowly throughout the lecture. That's why I am saying, just write it down on the side for now. Don't put any pressure on yourself. Don't think, "Oh, I don't know." Of course, you won't know if you haven't studied it. But you will know slowly. Holistic, I have already told you, it is a 360-degree approach, which studies humans in a whole way, in a complete manner. It studies every point, every part. Holistic means, as we discussed, it has its geography, its ecology, its environment, all those things. It has a history, its past and present. It is also doing business. It has economics. In today's world, if you talk about media, it also has commerce. You can add that here too, you can look at that. It has ethics, values, its society. So, if you separate all these things, they become different disciplines or subjects. If you mix all of them together, blend them, then what does it become? It becomes a discipline that studies humans in totality, not a particular part of them. So, when you talk about differences, these are all the things you can write in them. We will tell you all the similarities here. When you talk about Behavioral Sciences, you try to understand human cognition at a psychological level, try to understand his behavior. And here too, in Anthropology, there is a particular school called the Culture-Personality School, the Psychoanalytic School. There too, you are trying to understand the relationship, the aspect of human behavior, what are the reasons behind it. You are understanding all those things here. Do culture and personality influence each other? Are they independent of each other, or do they mutually influence each other? So, you study all these aspects in Behavioral Sciences and also here in the branch of Human Growth and Gerontology. Here too, you are studying why humans grow, why they age. The process of aging, why does old age come, why does a person become old, you study that. And many other things like molecular DNA, life cycle, epigenetics, genetics, you study that there too, and also within Anthropology, within Biological Anthropology. So, all these are similarities and differences. A common ground is provided here. In Medical Science, you study medical practices, medical behavior, the process of health and healing. Here too, there is medical knowledge, which you call Ethnomedicine. You study all those things. You do not just study what Medical Science tells you. You also study those diseases that have a cultural aspect, that do not have a biological basis, but you study them too. So, that is what you find here. If you talk about Earth Sciences, here too, there is Geology, which is a specialized field. I think it is not wrong to say, geology or earth science. You study the formation of the earth, different rocks, processes, through which you get evidence from different times. You study that there too, and here too, you study the process of earth formation, how life originated, different stone tools, or river systems that you see. You study all that here. Whenever you read about archaeology, in the beginning, you are taught what geological indicators are. So, of course, within Humanities, Anthropology is a part of Humanities. It is told that here too, in a liberal way, you are studying liberal science, artistic form, everything human. This was about the second unit. I have also put a question related to the third unit in the Telegram group today. The question was in the Telegram group: "Which of these is not one of the major branches of Anthropology?" You will understand this when you study these things, and you will be able to relate. By the time the video is posted, I think it will be done. When we talk about the main branches, first, we will tell you according to the UPSC syllabus. This UPSC syllabus is divided into different things, and the subject is divided into different parts. The UPSC syllabus is first Social Anthropology, then Physical. So, when you talk about the discipline, what are the main branches of Anthropology? In which parts will you divide it? First of all, there is what is common. Social Anthropology. Let's write down the common things first. Physical Anthropology is also called Social Anthropology. Next, what you have here is Archaeological Anthropology. This is just Archaeology. After this, the differences begin. The last, the fourth branch, you call Linguistics. Within this, language comes to you. What do you call it? Applied Anthropology. That is, there you are taking the theoretical knowledge of Anthropology in a practical sense. How can you solve human problems by applying it? How can you handle different issues? You study all those things. So, these are the major branches. This is in the language of UPSC, how it has revised the syllabus. And this is your actual syllabus, which is asked here. You can see here. Social-Cultural Anthropology, Biological, Archaeological, and Linguistics. The fifth one, which we talked about, came much later. First, we talked about the initial ones. You are seeing it from the 18th century. But this thing, Applied Anthropology, you see it developing around the middle of the 19th century, or rather, in the 20th century. It is developing. Around 1946, around 1950, which has many similarities and also differences, it is often seen associated with names. It is also developing there. So, there is a difference of about 300 years between these two, more than 300 years. That's why you will consider only these four as major. But if anyone asks you about the total branches that have come, what is Applied? We have told you. What is Linguistics? We have also told you. In Archaeology, you know you are studying the human past, community past, society's past, time. So, in Physical, we just told you in the previous slide. What is Social Anthropology or Sociology? We have also told you that there you are studying human society, human culture, norms, values, different institutions like marriage, family, kinship, religion. You are studying the phenomenon of social stratification, like class system or caste system. So, this comes under 1.3. Next, 2.1. So, this was the slide. All these characteristics you are seeing. First, culture is learned. It is learned. How is it done? The process is called enculturation. The process means learning one's culture by seeing, hearing, imitating, and knowing. This is called enculturation. Culture is learned through this process. Second, culture has a pattern. It runs in a patterned way. The religion of worship, the entire scenario of religion, you will see everywhere. Some symbols are associated with every religion. With Christianity, you can say the cross, the holy cross, the symbol you see. Islam talks about 706 in numerology. When you come to Hinduism, you see the symbol of Swastika, and many other things. So, everything has a patterned way. Everything has symbols. Everything is ritualistic. Everything has a written form. Everything, in all these forms, when you go to religion, there is a system of worship. So, even though all these are different, they show a similarity that you are praying in some way. The act of prayer is the same in all. Uniform. So, culture, in terms of pattern, is talking about patterns. Marriage. When you talk about marriage, there are two people who are getting married. Of course, Christian marriage is done differently, marriage in the Islamic system is done differently, and if you talk about the Hindu system or any other system in the world, marriage is done differently. But the institution of marriage, its functions, its roles, are more or less similar. You usually say this because when we go to that unit, we will tell you what the exceptions are. But we are talking generally. So, looking at the pattern, culture is diverse. Who can know this better than India and Indians? India is called a melting pot of cultures. Here, if you walk a few kilometers, you will see dialects changing. Then you see clothing changing. So, clothing changes. You see food habits changing. So, everywhere, the culture of tribal communities is different. The culture of modern society is different. European culture is different. American culture is different. Indian culture is different. Chinese and Japanese. You see different forms of culture. That's why there are many similarities too. Just as we read about similarities between disciplines, there are differences too. Similarly, even though culture is diverse, in tribal societies, marriage is done in a certain way, but marriage is happening. Religion is done in different forms. They might believe in animism. You might not understand the term animism now. When we go to religion, we will see. So, in their way, God is worshipped differently. In Christianity, it is different. In Islam, it is different. But worship is happening. There is worship. There is prayer. There is religion. So, despite differences, there is an identical similarity you are seeing. Culture is dynamic, not static. Culture keeps changing. New elements keep coming into it, getting mixed. Old elements might go away. Covid came, didn't it? So, during Covid, you start focusing on many practices like health and hygiene. You start wearing masks, which is said to be the new normal. You wash your hands, you sanitize. So, that has also become a part of your culture, a cultural aspect. So, you also say that culture is dynamic, it does not remain stagnant. New practices keep coming, old ones go away. Old ones remain, and new ones also come. So, it is dynamic in nature. Change, of course, will keep happening. Here you are seeing that it keeps getting integrated. Different things are coming, so they get added, and its network keeps growing, its expansion keeps happening. Culture is shared. That is, culture does not belong to an individual. It is not isolated. It is shared by different members of a whole community, your society. Everyone has a culture. And in this way, the cultural form is connected, distributed among people. So, you see it as shared. In general, if anyone asks you what culture means, a simple definition provided by Herskovits is that it is the man-made part of the environment. You see things like stones, rivers, all these things. Its antiquity is seen from ancient times, older than modern humans. Modern humans are much later, we say around 2 to 2.5 lakh years ago. If you go to a different timescale, you will find it. So, nature and environment have always been there. Now, the man-made part of it, what humans have created by interacting with nature, you call that your culture. How, by interacting with nature? The sun, the sun is a natural thing. You will see the environment forming. Similarly, by combining many small things, when things become big, then Herskovits says that the cultural or man-made part of the environment, whatever is man-made, created by humans, you will call that culture. It also includes beliefs, customs, morals, values, social institutions. You can add everything. Now, if you talk about the difference between culture and civilization, there are many differences between culture and civilization. Civilization has a precise standard to measure whether it is developed or not, how developed it is. There is no defined standard to measure culture. You cannot say that European culture is superior or Indian culture is superior. All are correct in their own place. You cannot say that the culture of Hinduism in India is superior, or the culture of tribals is superior. All are in their place. But you can say that a particular civilization, Egyptian civilization, Mayan civilization, Chinese civilization, and Indus Valley Civilization, which one is more developed? You compare it through what? Drainage system, which one has it well-developed? Housing, which one has more? What is seen more in which one? Storage tanks in which one? Warfare, cannons, fortifications, in which one has it happened more systematically? Symbolism, language, in which one do you see more development? Road transport, in which one is more developed? So, the one in which all these things are most present, you will say that yes, it is more developed. That's why it has a standard. Civilization is always progressing. But here you see culture. Culture is learned. So, if there is someone to learn, then the practice of culture will continue there. That's why it is said that information is passed down slowly from generation to generation, whether it is religious practice or something else. If you stop telling, the next generation will stop learning it. But civilization advances. Civilization does not need anyone's means. You have built a drainage system, you have built a well, there is water in it. So, anyone who comes next, even if they see it, they don't need to build it again. The well already exists there. The swings are there. The tree you planted is still there. The next generation is reaping its fruits. They don't need to build or carry that thing again. So, civilization keeps advancing in a way. And you don't have to do it. Civilization can be borrowed. External part. Any outsider can come and add something to it. But culture integrates and can improve it. For example, earlier there was a single fort, now someone has done multiple fortifications. So, there has been more development. But not everyone can come and advance or progress culture. For example, Rabindranath Tagore, Tulsidas.

Valmiki, all these people have written separate epic literature, that is their art, okay, that is a cultural thing, an aspect. Language, art, all these are part of culture. Now, not everyone can advance this as a layman. Whereas in civilization, what have you seen? There is a well, you have applied another one, attached it with cement, and joined it. Of course, in its depth, in its goodness, or how well it has been carved, there can be a difference. But a well is made, another can be made. A road, anyone can come and see it and make it. A tree, anyone can come and plant it. So, all these things do not involve artistic nature, creative form. So, it is easy to improve the part of civilization, to improve culture. It is not in everyone's capacity to do better than Rabindranath Tagore's work, or even better than Rabindranath Tagore. Then you talk about William Shakespeare, talk about anyone. Next, you are talking, so here it is that civilization can be destroyed. Of course, you see the decline of the Indus Valley Civilization. The peak period you are seeing is from 1900 BC to 2620 BC. After that, you start seeing a decline, and from the Vedic period to the Early Vedic period, it completely goes into downfall. So, it can be destroyed. But culture, there are two parts in culture as well. One is materialistic, which you can touch and see, material things. And one is non-materialistic. So, the non-materialistic part of culture, you cannot destroy it. You are communicating, there is language, dialects, how will you destroy them? You cannot. If you know how to create an art form, how will you erase it? Someone else will create it later. So, you cannot destroy artistic forms. All these things are non-materialistic parts, they keep existing. Next, if you go to the unit, sorry, before this, I need to tell you two things: ethnocentrism and relativism. Earlier, on the first slide, I told you that these are terms and propositions, just like holistic. Similarly, these two are also there. Ethnocentrism means looking at anything through your own glasses or lens, seeing it from your own perspective. Americans will look at Indian society from their perspective and find flaws. "Oh, there is so much poverty, so much illiteracy, so many backward people, so much, you say, superstitious things." Right? And just look, there might be some videos about them too. The way you are looking, you might be talking about tribal societies in the same way. So, ethnocentric means considering your own culture or anything related to yourself as superior and looking at the other society in a backward way, in an inferior way. So, this is ethnocentric, imposing your perspective on others, considering yourself superior. Whereas anthropology does not do this. What do anthropologists do? Their trademark is relativism, which we just talked about. Relativism looks at things. It tries to understand other cultures like its own. It says, remove your glasses, look at the culture through its glasses. Then you will know what you are seeing. When you look at their things from their perspective, relativism says, do not consider anything inferior. Everything is good in its own place, beautiful, unique. Everyone has their own independent existence, and accept it in that way, celebrate it too. We were talking about society. In society, you see many things. Society is made up of human populations, and it has many aspects. There is stratification, which you call egalitarian society in many places. What does egalitarian society mean? It is a society where there is no distinction between two people, two groups, two individuals. Do not discriminate between anyone. There is equality for everyone. So, this is the nature you generally see in tribal societies. Modern society, you call it pre-industrial society, industrial society, different types of societies. What does it represent? It represents human cultural interaction with others. If the members of the society expect me to listen to things with concentration, then the behavior should be, what are our principles, how should your mode of action be? That is what you call values. Social stratification, meaning how can you divide society? Not by dividing, but by stratifying, by classifying it, how can you study it? Stratification forms are different in every society. For example, in Western society, you generally see stratification based on class. There is upper class, middle, or lower middle class. So, the technical trademark of Asia, or India in general, is said to be the division from upper class to lower class. Right? And you see the common people there, the lower class people, the marginalized, as you call them. When you talk about India, you see the caste system. In the caste system, you see divisions into different groups like Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, Shudras. So, this is the entire part of society. There is also an interaction between society and culture. Culture is integrated with society in a way. Both cannot be seen independently of each other. There are social institutions in society. Members of society, for their existence or for their own existence, are doing many activities and practices in a structured way. And the way through which it is possible is called social institutions. For example, marriage is a social institution in itself. Through it, you accomplish various things. It has various functions: social security, provisioning for each other, taking care of each other, providing financial backup or financial support to each other for the members of the family. If you consider it, everything has its own reason, role, and it is seen in a structured form, patterns. So, this was about Unit 2.2. Next, you talk about Unit 7, and that is talking about culture, language, and communication. You have understood culture separately. Culture is not asked separately, but how culture, language, and communication are related to each other as a whole. So, first of all, the nature, origin, and characteristics of culture of language. You see similarities between language and culture. The term itself is similar. The characteristics of language also have many similarities with culture. For example, first, let's tell you what language is. In simple terms, if you want a layman to understand, you will say language is the mode or means through which people share ideas, or language is the vehicle of communication. If you want to communicate with someone, share your thoughts, transfer them, pass on information, then the medium, the means, is what you call language. It is possible only through language. So, if you say there are two modes or types of language, there are two: one is verbal, and the other you might have guessed, is non-verbal. Verbal is communication through words, and oral. And the other is where you don't need the agency of words, no words are needed. That you call non-verbal communication. So, you will ask, how will you communicate there? You can do it through gestures, through eye movements, through distance, through symbols. But if you want to understand it intuitively, you can say, so non-verbal. So, these are types of communication. Now you will ask, what are the characteristics? So, we said that the characteristics of culture are also seen here. Language is also transmitted like culture. You also learn language like culture. It is also a learned behavior. It is a learned behavior. Next, if you say, language is also shared. It is not of one person. It is among people, communities, societies. There are people who practice it, speak it, understand it, know it. So, all these things are shared characteristics. Verbal communication, you have understood. The structure of verbal communication is very vast. It is not easy to understand. That is why there is a whole branch for it. In that, you have studied semantics, meaning you are trying to understand the meaning. In general, when you try to study different sounds, different languages, try to read and understand them, it is done under phonology. In semantics, you try to understand the meaning. Phonetics comes up, phonology comes up. So, there is a big distinct zone within it, which you try to understand by expressing yourself through words. So, you see a systematic structure. You see syntax, meaning how to arrange different words. Syntax means how to arrange different words so that it becomes a meaningful sentence or phrase. So, the arrangement of words, how language is structured, how language or its dialects are structured, how you communicate, all that you understand under verbal communication and its structure, and different modes come. Communication is not just one mode, there are many. Just waving your hand, there are many ways. So, first, if you talk about modes, it is oculics. Here, sometimes you blink your eyes. If you want to show a little sadness, you try to close your eyes, you move your eyes here and there. By gesturing, you are telling that something is here or there. So, you can communicate through eye movements. What you want to convey, you can express. Second is kinetics. Here, you are expressing things through distance, how close or far someone is. So, someone is very close to you, you have an intimate relationship with someone, your partner, so you stand very close to them. The distance is very less. If you are addressing someone, you keep a lot of distance. If they are completely unknown, you might be addressing a crowd, so the distance will be very far. There is a different distance between friends. So, distance also explains things, conveys them without saying anything. You can understand and tell how much distance there is between people, how close they are, what is their relationship, and what is not. Right? Sorry, there is a slight issue here. This thing I just said comes under proxemics. The distance is under proxemics, and under kinetics, you are studying movement. So, everything I told you just now comes under proxemics. Understand the concept of distance. Under kinetics, you are understanding things through movement. Understand movement of hands or in some other way. For example, what is the best thing for this? Movement of a six. You see an umpire, he says, he raises his hand, so it means the player is out. A different signal for no ball, a different signal for wide. Although this sounds like a Shah Rukh Khan pose, but if you talk about cricket, his cricket team is also Shah Rukh Khan's, but still, it gives a signal of wide. So, there are a lot of symbols through which we communicate. Don't just talk about cricket, you talk in different ways, and you understand, you are told. If someone shows you a hand like this, it means he is going to slap you, something like that. Paralysis happens. So, all these are coming under non-verbal communication. If we talk about origin, how language originated, there are different opinions. Many people say language evolved. It is called in different aspects. Through human evolution, you see, humans used to walk on four legs, quadrupedal. Then they started walking on two legs. So, these are the changes in the voice box, which came in a line, and thus voice production started. So, through such changes in the body, evolutionary changes, language production also started. Language also developed. There is a divine theory, which says that language is given by God. He gave it to humans. So, there are different theories. And although they are not in your unit, but if we were teaching in a live lecture in class, we would discuss them too, so that you get a comprehensive, in-depth understanding of things. Here, the time is, you have to finish this in 14 days, sorry, in 14 days. So, we have to cover limited ground. Social context of language, or social context of language, you can divide it into two parts: one is ethnolect, and the other is social. What does this mean? When we talk about social context, it means what is the connotation of anything, any word, anything you want to say, communicate through language? How can it change in a social sense? For example, I am delivering a lecture to you here. So, my language, my dialect, the way I am addressing you is totally different from how I will communicate at home with my family. And the way I will talk to my family will be completely different from how you communicate with your friends. With friends, you are more casual, easy, and you use informal language. When you talk to a teacher, you will do it differently. The way I am talking to you is different. If you are addressing someone publicly, going on a stage, then that will be a different way. So, social context, time, and whom you are talking to, accordingly, language, language changes in different aspects. Even the wording changes. If you talk in front of a judge, you will know all those things. So, that thing changes. That comes under the social context, meaning at what time, where, with whom, and with what age person you are talking, accordingly, language changes its different parameters. If you talk about a small child, you will talk to them in a very cute way, in a familiar tone, in a very loving way. You will talk to elders differently, and to someone of your age differently. That comes under the social context of language. For the last research methods in anthropology, research happens everywhere. So, in anthropology, research is done. First, the most important thing is the fieldwork tradition. In history, you read books, texts, historical sources. What is written in Ain-i-Akbari? What is written in Baburnama? What is written in Humayun Nama? What did Fa Hien write? What did Xuanzang write? What is written in Arthashastra? What is written in Meghaduta? You are reading all these things, reading texts, doing comparative analysis, or extracting information from them. So, you are taking data from secondary sources, which are already written or available, and working with them. Anthropology, when it is studying a society, a time, a culture, a human being, a human population, it goes to them in real-time, in the present, and understands them. For example, you study many types of societies. That is called your fieldwork. You go to the field and work, and study them. That is your fieldwork. It is primary information. It is the first-hand information that you are going to research. You are going to answer, you are going to question them, and you will note their answers. Whatever they tell you, whatever you see there, all that is first-hand information that you are going to use. That comes under the fieldwork tradition. And the distinction between, for example, in different places, you see ethnological or comparative studies, whereas here you see ethnographic studies. It is first-hand information, primary information. Participant observation is an important thing in anthropology. What is that? Participant observation. I think it is written here. If not, let me tell you, this is also an important thing, just like holistic, ethnocentric. We wrote it at the end, maybe it was on the slide. Let me show you again. This is participant observation. So, what is this? You are going to study the society, the group, you are going to study them by going among them. You are trying to know and understand a group by becoming a part of it. Because if you do not become a part of them, if you do not participate in their day-to-day activities, they will consider you a stranger. For example, when a census taker comes, sometimes you don't share a lot of information with them. Why don't you share? Because you don't fully trust them. Right? You try to hide things. Sometimes people do this. So, such information, because they don't have trust, they understand, or someone asks you for some other information. Next, you talk about tools of data collection. Observation, interview, schedule. What are they? Tools of data collection. What are the things through which you collect data? We said you are going to get first-hand information. You are going to get primary information on the ground, in real-time, you are going to do fieldwork. Now, with the help of what things will you do that? Those are called tools.

Inside, inside, so first of all, here is the name given: Observation. Observation is of two types, we just discussed them. One type is Participant Observation, which I just told you about. You will wait, you will connect with them, you will stay with them, you will participate in their activities, so that their trust in you increases, right? They might not be reluctant to share information with you, right? Reluctant no, right? Family large, and they feel completely comfortable with you. Non-participant is just the opposite. So, observation comes in two forms. Interview, you don't need me to tell you. You all watch many TV channels. We also have an interview scheduled here with Justice Singh Sir, and you can watch that. We have explained the complete details of the course we are launching in Anthropology there. It is available on your YouTube platform, Study IQ. So, you know what an interview is. Scheduled like question-answer. These are two things that look similar. What is the difference between them? Both are lists of questions. Questions are written in both. What is the difference? A schedule is usually made for an interview. Right? If you want to ask someone something, you prepare a structure. What will you ask? You call that a schedule. It's a plain structure, that we are going to ask these things. What is a questionnaire? On the other hand, it is also a list of questions. It is a formal list of questions that you send to another person, and they fill it out and return it to you. Right? So, you will administer this personally through an interview. And on the other hand, you are giving it to the other person, and they will fill it out and tell you. Now, what is the difference between this and a questionnaire? A questionnaire will only work for someone who is educated and literate. If you send it to them, and they are not educated, they won't understand your questions, so they won't be able to answer. Whereas in a schedule, you are going to ask them yourself. At least they can't read English or any other language, but at least they can understand what you are asking by listening to your words, and they can answer. One more difference is that schedules are flexible. The questions in an interview are not like, you have to ask only 1, 2, 3 lines. If the other person says something new, right? Now you watch "Aap Ki Adalat" (a TV show). If someone says something, you can add a new question there accordingly, or replace an old one, delete it, move forward, move backward. What is not the case with a questionnaire is that the list is arranged, 1 to 10 or 1 to 200. So, you have seen this, and this is the difference. When we look at live courses, everything is explained there, which we have told you many times. So, you have read and understood this. How to study? General Life History is also a data collection method. How do you study anything? If you are studying a particular event, then how does it happen? It could be a person, it could be a particular event. Right? And you study it in full detail through different aspects. In Hindi, it is called Vanshali (genealogy). A system through which you study ancestors, try to understand relationships, and many other things are possible to understand. Next is Life History. You are studying a human subject in a historical sense. That is more than a biography. Autobiographies end with the person's life and death. But here, you are noting down and understanding different aspects and different stories related to their life, which are different from their perspective, seen and understood by someone else. What they think about it. So, you are trying to know the person or whatever subject you are studying in a historical way, in a historical manner, with an overall 360-degree approach. It is one of the important tools. Oral History. Again, we talk about what is available orally. You talk about legends. All these things that change. Stories are told. You have heard many things, but those stories are not written. Don't wash non-veg daily. These stories are not written in books, not in Ramayana, not in Mahabharata, or any other Veda. Right? But they are carried forward as part of oral tradition, like stories. So, they are part of oral tradition. Secondary sources of information. Primary sources of information, which we just talked about. Secondary sources are similar things. There is a document, there is a historical thing, someone's biography, someone's diary. The information you get from it is secondary. And what is primary? Primary information is that you collect it yourself, you observe it yourself. Next is Participant Method, which we saw under observation the day before yesterday. When you talk about the development of anything, even for development, when you talk about community development programs and all these things, there used to be a top-to-down approach. Right? There, you are not asking the person whose development is to be done. So, what do you have to do? You go and see it yourself according to your understanding. So, that is an ethnocentric way of addressing some problem. At least, if you have to develop someone, you should ask their priorities. How do they want things? There are different types, different practices. For example, you have to build a washroom somewhere. Many schemes are running now. Right? It is being built in villages at different prices everywhere. But you went and built it where you thought was the right place. Is this place a religious spot for the person, for that tribal population? A tree, an animal, something historical, something that is their religious or cultural aspect, and you built a washroom there. So, there will be outrage, fights will happen. Therefore, it is very important to ask those people, to communicate with them, and to know their priorities. It is possible that you have to go somewhere, and you have five things or three things that you can do. You can build a school, you can build a road, or you can solve the water problem. So, you started building a school first. That is not their priority. Their first priority is survival, right? So, first, you should handle the water problem, the water issue. So, the priorities that are set, you have to do things by asking them, in their aspect, in their relation. So, all these things are possible only when you use participatory methods. You participate in the process of development, or even in the process of research. So, you can see this in different things. If you do research by participating, the research will be done well. If you participate in development, you will see good development. Analysis, Interpretation, and Presentation of Data. This is a topic. When you sample research data, after sampling, you have collected different data, then the part of processing it and the thing of presenting it in research, you are studying it in these segments. So, that is a long topic. We will cover it in depth in the live batches when we are taking it in the live classes. So, this was the first video, the first part of the video. Here we have seen this particular thing. The next part we are going to discuss is about Social Anthropology. The Social Anthropology is going to start there. New part. We are continuing the introductory social part yesterday, and in that also, we are moving towards Unit 2.3. What we have so far was the research methodology, the language, and different portions covering culture, society, relevance of anthropology, scope of anthropology, definition. Now, what are associations and institutions and social organization across the globe? In any society, any human population, you will see this sort of social organization, and their purpose varies from place to place. Institutions, institutions, organizations, to an organization. Their fundamental function is to fulfill a requirement. This requirement is to provide a structural basis. Now, if you look at organization, we find two headers within it: Institutions, which are social institutions, and organizations. When a group of people come together, they form an alliance or structure for a particular goal. It is very utilitarian in nature, goal-oriented in nature. That is, it is functional, it has a purpose, a goal, an objective towards which it has a great inclination, utility. And on the other hand, you see institutions. Why do they exist in society? When humans interact, right? To fulfill the functions or functional requirements of their interactions, the organizations that are responsible are called social institutions. For example, if you take marriage, what is it? A social institution. Family. Then, it is both an organization and an institution. Why is it an organization? Because in a family, you see extended families, you see kin, where not just blood-related people are connected, but many other people are also connected. So, it is very much a goal-oriented organization. Whereas in an institution, the affinity you have is stronger. The utilitarian nature, its first significance, the stress it puts on, that is going to be a little different from an organization. So, I hope the part of social organizations is clear. Now, we move to Unit 2.3, which is talking about a phenomenon, a social institution, that we call marriage. In Hindi, you call it Shaadi. A movie came, I guess, "Shaadi Mein Zaroor Aana" (You Must Come to the Wedding). Many of you might have seen it. And I believe so because the movie's theme, the way it is inclined towards things, is what? So, that movie, perhaps you... That is not going to change anything that you are going to get in this particular unit, that is 2.3. If you talk about the institution of marriage, it is an integral truth of society. If society has members, then wherever you go, you will see this thing. That is, what? Marriage, wedding, and another special thing about its existence, if you are talking about it, it is also fulfilling that. Therefore, its importance becomes even more crucial. And if you look at it on this basis, it is established through mating even among non-human populations, among different private groups. Of course, it is not marriage and institution there, but the phenomenon of mating is happening. In our case, this thing has been institutionalized. The feature, the phenomenon of mating has been provided with a structural basis. Rules and regulations have been added to it. Its regularization has been done. You see mating even among animals, or rather than marriage, we are talking about mating among animals. Mating is very irregular. Who is more powerful, who is more strong, becomes very important to cater to functional needs or biological needs like mating. So, here you see different things being discussed. First of all, what is being asked here is, what is the definition? How do you define anything? So, the definition is in front of you. You are seeing it. I will step aside. You will say, "Sir, move aside, then we can see." So, I will step aside. Now, you can take a screenshot of this, or if you don't want to take a screenshot, there is no hurry. You know, this is the group, Anthropology Decor. The day this lecture is uploaded, we will put this in the Telegram group. For that, you... And if I forget by mistake, you can remind me by communicating in the Telegram group. The name of the Telegram group is "The Same Ones," "The Same Ones and Homo Sapiens," and "World We A U L T Se." And if you have any requirements, you can tell me there without any hesitation. So, here comes the definition. The definition is in front of you. Marriage is generally considered as a union between a man and a woman such that the children born to the woman are recognized as legitimate offspring of both the parents. Where did this definition come from? The special thing about this definition is that it is considered. There are many definitions. There can be different interpretations. One might claim a historical definition, another might claim a scientific definition. And here, when we read the first definition in Anthropology, this is it. And where was it published? It was published in the 6th edition of Notes and Queries in 1951. There you can find this definition. There is a problem with this definition, and that is why something else is given here. Along with the definition, it is universal. This definition, when given, was attempted to be projected as a universal definition. It was used in many places, by many people, in this way. But it is not a universal definition because it has a problem. When is anything universal? When there is no exception to it, or when its non-existence is seen. Then you consider that thing. It becomes very important for you to understand and know where such a definition came from, when it came. So, whenever you mention it in an exam, if you mention this thing, the edition of Notes... One more thing that is very interesting. What is the problem with universality? Here, the problem you are seeing is that marriage is considered a union between a man and a woman. Right? Is there a problem with this? In modern places, or if you go to many primitive communities, you will see same-sex marriages besides man and woman. That is, male-male marriage and female-female marriage are seen. Right? So, this thing will cause you trouble. That is the first problem. What is the second problem? It talks about the legitimacy of children born. So, if someone gets married after their childbearing years, that is, women, you know, men can bear children throughout their lives, but women's childbearing capacity ceases at a particular biological stage, which is termed as menopause, right? So, there, this thing ends. Childbearing or capacity. So, after that childbearing age, until a person or the woman can conceive, if she gets married, will you not consider it a marriage? You will still consider it a marriage. So, this is the second problem you see here. After childbearing, in many societies, you see different systems. For example, among the Nuer tribe in Africa, right? There you see the concept of ghost marriage. Or there is another form of marriage, which you call secret marriage. In ghost marriage, what happens is that if a father has no son, only a daughter, then he marries his daughter to another girl. To a female. Right? That is, a female is marrying a female. The daughter of the father will play the role of a man, meaning she will act as if she is a man, playing the role of a husband. And the other one, to whom she is married, the female, will play the role of a wife. Now, obviously, there can be no progeny here. Both are females, female, right? So, for this, what happens is that you see that the other female, who came from outside, her marriage is not marriage. She is made to mate. That is, sexual intercourse happens. It is established with some other man from outside. And the child born to them will be considered the child of these two female counterparts, the female couple. What is the benefit? The father who had no son, his daughter acted as his heir, meaning she carries forward his lineage. Right? So, you see this phenomenon there. Ghost marriages happen, where if a husband dies, then if a woman marries someone else, and the child born will be provided legitimacy, meaning it will be considered legitimate. That the child born is not illegitimate. So, obviously, that person will not be the biological father. The real husband has died. Right? But you are doing it with another person. So, how will you consider the children legitimate? You will consider them legitimate, but not through the biological father. Through whom? You call that concept there, the social father. A social father. One more thing we would like to tell you here is that besides these three problems in universality, when you come to live courses, you get to see multiple case studies. We have 14 hours of time, 400 hours of material to cover in 14 hours, so we cannot go into depth. Still, we are trying as much as possible. These are the main parts. Second, our Laws of Marriage. Now, you are getting married, so there are laws for it. We just talked about it providing a structural basis. In human society, if there were no institution of marriage, then anyone would marry anyone. If there is a fight with someone, who should marry whom, at what age should it be decided? These things are not decided. So, there would be a lot of problems, a lot of issues. Right? To regularize these things, you have laws here. There are some principles, some concepts that have to be followed, which are given here. If you divide these laws, they come into three parts. First, Referential. Second, Differential. Prescriptive, and Proscriptive. This is given in the syllabus. How will you design it and write it in the exam? So, first, Proscriptive is used. Proscriptive rules are those rules in which it is told that you cannot marry this person. That is, who is forbidden to marry. Right? Here, restrictions are told.

It is forbidden, brother. Here, you cannot marry these people. It restricts you. And the second one is, it tells you in this way whom you can marry. These are of two types, okay? It is given here. What is the second type? And it is not very racist. It has flexibility. If you don't obey it, there can be sanctions, you can get punishment. So, here there is rigidity. I hope the difference is clear. In descriptive, you are told whom you can marry, and in prescriptive, you are also told in two ways whom you can marry. First is preferential, which is not rigid. It is your preference. You can make adjustments in it. There is flexibility in it, okay? If you absolutely don't obey, it's not that the rules are extremely hard and fast. Whereas in prescribed, within the prescribed, the second one that is coming, prescribed, how is it? It is that you must, like medicine, right? Medicine is told to you that you have to take this medicine, so you take that medicine and no other medicine. You cannot take medicine for another illness. So, it is like that, it is prescribed, you will marry this person. So, based on this, the rules are divided into different sorts. So, in that also, you get to see four types of cases, okay? There is a slight space issue here. Let's tell you only this way, okay? Or here, after the next slide, there is more space, yes, this board space is empty. Let's see here. We talked about laws, okay? [Music] Prescribed. You have understood this, okay? Now, what are the rules that come under preferential? First, you get to see cousin marriage. Second, levirate, and third, sororate. Cousin marriage, you must have heard of it, you must know, right? You see it in the Mahabharata, in many places, in different societies. So, it is allowed. You see that parallel cousin marriage is also being allowed, okay? In Islam, you see, these norms keep changing in different places. There are two fronts: one is parallel, and the other is cross. In parallel cousin marriage, what happens? If you marry the children of your parent's same-sex sibling, then you call it parallel. Same-sex, what does your parent's mean? For example, your mother, her same-sex sibling, who is her sibling? Her sister, meaning your aunt, or your maternal aunt, okay? Your maternal aunt. When you are marrying her children, then what is it? You will see same-sex marriage happening there. How do you see cross? That is, when you marry the opposite sex, that is, for example, your maternal uncle. You marry his children, then you will see cross-cousin marriage happening there. Or if you talk in the case of the father, then your paternal uncle will be counted as parallel, and your paternal aunt will be counted as cross. Both of these are preferred. It is told that you can see some rules and regulations in this. That is, you can marry if you want. This comes under preferential. Next is the condition, levirate. In levirate, what happens? Husband dies, the marriage is with the younger brother. If you want to say this in Hindi, then you call it Devara Vivah. Devara, right? Okay, it is a marriage with the brother-in-law. So, this is also there. There is a reason for all these. For example, what can be the reason for levirate? Sometimes, widows do not want to marry quickly, and once a marriage has happened in a family, then bonds are formed. Now you cannot jump back to another place. If you start jumping to another place, then there are difficulties, some problems. And again, rituals, expenses of that kind, many functional problems will arise, right? These are not emotional problems. Behind all this, there are personal problems, your expenses are also high, your effort is also high, time is also going. The bond that has already been formed with people in one family is also going to be spoiled. So, to remove all these problems, you can marry another unmarried person from this family. It is possible that the younger brother is also married, yet you get the second marriage done with him. That is, he can have two wives as well. You are seeing exceptions even within this. So, this is the beauty, or cultural studies. When you study different cultures, you see diversity, you see variety. And about India, the special type is a melting pot of cultures. Allowed. I can have some water. No, you have to tell me, then you will understand. What is sororate? What is the meaning of sororate? It is the opposite of levirate. Here, the wife dies, so the person will marry the wife's sister, right? So, you see this. What do you call this? You call it Sali Vivah, right? In North India, the term used for sister-in-law is Sali. So, there you also cancel it with Sali Vivah, right? So, these are the two systems that are coming under preferential. Now, who comes under forbidden? One is the biggest forbidden, which is incest taboo. Marriage cannot happen between siblings, okay? The phenomenon of marrying between biologically related people is completely forbidden. Except for some societies. What is the exception? First, we have told that the rules for not marrying between blood-related people, the institution that tells this is incest taboo. It is a grave offense. Taboo is something which is forbidden, you cannot do it. So, you study that under this. Although this is allowed in some societies. For example, higher aristocratic societies, they had a system, and because of that, they believed that the purity of blood is very important, that our lineage, our race, we, our caste, is very superior to others, and our purity should remain, no external mixing in our blood. Therefore, they were marrying within their own families. Today, you see that all those things come under taboo. There are other things also that here, like the rule of endogamy. This is the opposite. You are saying correctly. Endo means within, gamy means marriage. That is, marriage within the group. Exo means outside, gamy means marriage. In many places, different groups, meaning caste groups, class groups, can be gotra, pravara, sapinda. There are different systems. For example, marriage within your own gotra is prohibited. You cannot do that. Within the gotra, what is it? You will say that endogamy within the gotra is forbidden, it is prohibited and restricted. You can marry outside the gotra. So, here, if we talked about forbidden, then what will you say? Gotra endogamy is restricted, or banned, which you will say you cannot do. You can marry within the gotra. Marriage outside the caste is forbidden. So, what is happening in caste? That is, what is happening in varna? If we are talking about caste today, then what will happen there? Exogamy is forbidden there. That is, you cannot marry outside your caste. Rules like this are going on, okay? You see different types of rules there. It is completely forbidden. So, you have read all these laws. And let's see what was asked from us in our unit. So, these are yours. And here, endogamy etc. was mentioned. Although it was said here, but we have told you everything. That there are two terms left: hypergamy and hypogamy. We have also read about hypergamy and hypogamy. What is the concept of hypergamy? That means what? Hyper means marrying into a group higher than your class, your group, your category. And hypo means into a lower group. That can be caste, it can be varna. So, in many places, in texts, especially in Smritis, like Manusmriti, Yajnavalkya, here you see. A term is used for this, which you call Anulom or Pratilom marriage. And this is what you use as modern terms for these, which is hypergamy or hypogamy. Who can marry into a lower group? Who cannot marry into a lower group? Should marry into a higher group? That is, if a girl is allowed to marry a Brahmin girl, she is allowed to marry a Vaishya or Shudra in caste ranking. And if you talk about varna system, then rules like these are addressed by hypergamy and hypogamy. These differ in different texts, in different connotations, in different regions, in different natures. We will tell you about the explanation and case studies on this, and what is in which text, in our live batch, which is starting from the 21st. So, there you will find one thing, along with case studies, what Manusmriti is saying, what is forbidden in which form of marriage, what is its functional need or functional value. There we will explain to you that what is written in this text, does it have any regional center, or is it just baseless talk? So, this is done. And other things here, perspective, sorry, this is family, right? Marriage. Here, we are now talking about types of marriage. So, types of marriage are written here on the board. Again, I'll step aside. But in general, if you talk about different groups, they can be divided. First is monogamy, and the second is polygamy. I have already told you what gamy means. It is used for marriage. Mono means single, poly means many. Mono means single, poly means many. So, if one person is marrying one person, then you call it monogamy. If one person is marrying many, then you call it polygamy. Monogamy is also of different types: serial and non-serial. Serial means that at one time, you will have one partner. If you have a wife, then at one time, you have another. If you have a husband, then at one time, you have another. How do you understand this? In many cases, you see that your partner dies, so you marry another person. But as long as the person was alive, you were only married. So, you call it serial marriage, that at one time, you are married to one person. And non-serial, generally you see that throughout the entire period, throughout your life, you are married to only one person. Here, we talked about death, divorce can happen. Divorce, the first marriage is dissolved, then you marry someone else. So, this is serial, you see it like a series. At one time, a person is married to one person. Next, you talk about polygamy. So, polygamy is also in two different groups, or if you see in three, first polyandry, second polygyny. Both of these together. What is polyandry? Polyandry means multiple males or multiple husbands. Here, for example, you can relate it to the example of Draupadi. Draupadi married five Pandavas. She has five multiple husbands. So, that was polyandrous marriage. This is also divided into different groups in itself. If the husbands are related, and it is used for adult. So, adultery, it is one word. Non-fraternal or non-adult is one word. In many societies, you see familiar polyandry. So, familiar is very rare. There are only one or two examples in the world today that are recorded, that people have read and understood. In familiar, what happens? The multiple husbands in the same family are in the same family. How? The father and the son are husbands of the same woman. So, this is a very strange case, which you see very rarely in some societies. There are different terms, you can say anything as you like, according to taste. So, this is also of two types: fraternal and non-fraternal. If you have understood this, then understand this too. Fraternal means that the wives are sisters to each other. Non-fraternal means they are not sisters to each other. Next, the third one, which is rarely told, but we are telling you because our effort will be to explain to you in the easiest way possible, so that you never lack material. So, you are getting so much here, so what will you not get in live batches? How much in-depth information will you get, and how well will we explain things to you? So, first is called polyandry. Now, here, 'jin' is also coming, 'andru' is also coming. It's not the genie from Aladdin's lamp, it's the 'jin' from the 'jin' family. So, polyandry or polya-andry. You can call it this. What is happening here? Polyandry and polygyny are combined. So, it becomes poly-general. What happens in that? Here, multiple males, multiple females. That is, the husbands have all the wives, and you see it in wives. For example, if you talk about the Khasi, don't confuse it with Khasi. Khasi is a tribe from Northeast, you go to Meghalaya. Khasi is a tribe from Uttarakhand. There is a prominent member you can see. You must have heard his songs. You must be thinking who it could be. The singer's name is Jubin Nautiyal. You must have heard his songs for many years. He is also a segment within the Khasi, called Jaunsar-Bawar. It is a region within Uttarakhand, from Jaunsari region, he belongs. So, he is connected to this tribe. You see it. So, you see it among the recorded tribes. If you go to the South, go to the Nilgiri Hills, among them too. I think it is given here. See, a little bit here. You have these two examples. So, types of marriage are also done. Now, what is left? Did we leave anything? That is, what are the functions of marriage? It is very easy. One is to provide social security to each other, right? To take care of the family. To continue the lineage, you can say. To continue inheritance. To continue descent. To provide economic support to each other. If there is only one source of income, then there can be problems. So, if there is another person, they can help. So, there are different functions of marriage, which we have told you in simple terms. What can they be? Regulations. We have already told you about laws and regulations. A segment called payment comes. Now, payment. Let's again move to the black space. Yes, here. If we look at this, let's clear it a little, then we will explain to you what payment is. Now, marriage gift, you call it. In many places, it is asked in questions, in interviews, in mock tests, whether you will accept it. So, all those things come here. Marriage payment, we will write MP. Okay? Don't think it means Member of Parliament. So, MP is of two types. One is bride price, and the second is dowry. What is the difference between the two? Bride price is given to the girl. That the girl is leaving her home, she will go and increase the lineage in another place. So, in an old society, in a tribal society, you see bride price because there, more people means less difficulty. It is like a helping hand. Every member is doing some work there. So, if one member is less, then you will give compensation for it. So, it is that the boy's family is giving money to the girl's family, saying that we are taking one member from your place. And in today's society, what you see, which is a very bad practice, there are rules and laws for this, abolition, yet secretly many people are running it in the name of gifts. You see such things too. So, dowry is that the girl's family is forced to give it to the girl's family. We will write it as a gift, but it is not counted as a gift in literature. The gift is only in the minds of society. Now, the term bride price is not a concrete term. There is a problem with this, and a very great anthropologist, A. Evans-Pritchard, brought this problem to light. He pointed out the problem. What is the problem? He says that the price of anything is fixed. Like on a packet, you see Parle biscuits, Britannia biscuits, MRP Maximum Retail Price. Or selling price. So, the price of anything is a fixed number, 10, 15, 20, 25. It is not the same in every society. In some places, utensils are given. In some places, jewelry is given. In some places, you can say means of transport are given. In some places, you see cattle. Societies where their entire livelihood is based on animals, animal husbandry, pastoral societies. A little example of that you see. You also see horses. So, those people are giving cattle, cows, sheep, goats, these.

This is what you get. There is something you will see in modern society that the price of money cannot be this because its value is not fixed. Whether you give it to the cow first, or to the first, or to Shiva, its number is also not fixed. If someone has 50 cows and buffaloes, then maybe they will give 10. Okay, but if someone has a lot, they will barely be able to give one or two. That's why they say the number is not fixed. That's why Evans Picture researched and said, "Don't call this a bright price, brother. Instead of a bright price, what will you call it? Call it bread wealth because wealth is not fixed." So this term and shooting is. So, hope this one is clear to you. This whole story about the bright payment, the payment systems that you see globally, you must have understood. And who among you is in favor of bright price, who is in favor of dabri, tell us in the comment section. If you are not in favor of either, then that's great. Then you can also write your opinion on that. We also want to see how our current generation, which is dreaming of becoming an IAS officer, thinks about what kind of system or pattern. Do tell us by writing your opinion on this in the comments. So that's about 2.3, the marriage. This unit ends, and now your 2.4 begins. Here we have also used handwritten notes on manual notes, which we will provide to you in the group. When which group is this group? Your answer is here. You can go to Telegram, you will find all the PDFs. So moving to the family. What is family, and what is it? What rocket science is there that you are asking like this? So, okay, then we give you all of them in 10-15 marks, but we don't have to do that here. So, the definition of family is written here. The definition is provided here. Sorry, let's use another color here. They do red on yellow. It is an institution, a kind of organization. Now, within social organization, two units have been told to you: institution and organization. So, we said that you are looking at marriage as an institution, but we said that family is also an organization and an institution. And why it is so, the reason has also been told. You can look back if you didn't pay attention at that time. But don't go now, first the definition, then institution, and institution, then organization. And what is its function? It is a durable organization of persons united by marriage, blood, or adoption to provide legal status to children, and safety to all the members. When you talk about a durable organization, on the front of love relationships, you talk about heartbreak and things like that. So, all those relationships can break. Sometimes friendship also breaks, but family is called a durable organization. The bond of family is very strong. It is stronger than Fevicol, isn't it? Chulbul Pandey says Fevicol, so it's the same thing. It is seen as stronger than Fevicol. It is called durable. The bond of Ambuja Cement, which is called "Why doesn't this wall break?" So, that kind of organization is seen here, where persons are united through three things. It is not necessary that it is only one thing. They can be related through marriage. But even apart from marriage, like you have your siblings, or your uncles and aunts, even if they are not married, they are your family, aren't they? So, in this way, it is not necessary that all people are related by marriage. It can be by marriage, by blood, like your sibling, your brother or sister, you are not married to them, but you are related by blood. So, that can also be there, and people related through adoption can also be members of your family. And distant relatives are also considered members of the family. Non-blood-related members are also considered family. Distant relatives. So, the family is divided on this basis. We will teach you further, and you understand its function here. It provides legal status, meaning it provides legal status and legitimacy to children, your children. And at the same time, it provides safety to whom? Not just children, but to every member. Every person in the family is protecting each other. They are looking after each other. If you fall sick, different family members are looking after you, taking care of you. Even if an elder in your family is sick, the younger ones try to help as much as they can. So, this is the definition of family. Now, family is a different form of household. Perhaps it is given here, asked, right? Family, household, and domestic group. What is the difference? It's simple, I'll tell you. We will go through case studies there. Live match. I will tell you briefly how the difference is. What is the meaning of family, you have been told. What is in a household? In a household, you count all the members living in your house. Sometimes, all the people living in your house are not related to you by blood, nor are they related through marriage. And you are not their adopted parent either. Like your uncles and aunts, distant ones. All these people will be members of your household. The members in a household can also be non-blood-related. They are not related by blood, but you are keeping them with you as family members. So, you are not exactly calling them family, but they are called members of your household. And the third term is domestic group. Domestic group means that within a house, in a domestic setup, in an enduring setup, you are living with people who are neither your family, meaning they are not connected to all these things, nor are they your relatives. So, those who are neither are your domestic group. Now you will say, who is living with us like this? If any of you who are watching and listening to me, maybe many of you are watching me from Old Rajinder Nagar. Maybe many of you are sitting in Laxmi Nagar. Many of you might be sitting in Palika Bazaar, in Feroz Nagar, preparing for UPSC here. So, there you might be living in hostels, paying guests, or maybe in flats in different types of groups. The people you are living with are not related to you through marriage, nor have you adopted them, nor are they related to you by blood, nor are they your household. Meaning, they are not even non-blood-related to you. Yet you are living with them. So, it is a temporary organization, not a permanent one. So, what is it called? It is called a domestic group. Even if you are not preparing, when you are living somewhere with someone during your schooling days or college, the people you live with, you will say they are your domestic group. They could be some people from a company living with you. So, people like this. What are their functions? There are majorly many, but we will not go into detail. The short ones first. Transmitter of culture. When any child is born, they learn all these things. What is this process? Family provides all these things. Family tells all these things. Second, it is a universal institution. You see it in any society, you will find family there. If you have to worship, perform rituals, or pray, you do it sitting in the family. So, there are people. This is your religious, social, cultural. You have to celebrate. Economic need. If one person has a problem, another person will provide money or help. So, you see different needs like this. Biological needs, economic needs, religious needs, psychological needs. Sometimes there is distress, anxiety. Another family member explains it. And types of marriage. Where you are procreating. Where you are going and doing it. Orientation, meaning those related to you by birth. And procreation, meaning where you are going. For example. Talking about matrilocal. You might not be able to see it. I will send the PDF, so maybe you can look carefully. First, it is written here, matrilocal. What happens there? The bridegroom leaves the house and goes to live at the mother-in-law's house. Second, patrilocal. This will be the opposite. Meaning the bride will leave her house. You see this in India. The bride leaves home and goes where? Neolocal. They don't go to the girl's side, nor do they come separately. They create their own new house. Maybe the funding for it is from both the families, or a particular family is giving it. Or maybe they are building the house with their own money. So, you see that. But in most cases, neolocal, as given here, you create a new house for the family. The couple's own house. Either the couple, their partners, are living in your house. Here you talk about living in a particular house for one night and another place the next night. So, in bilocal, it means their residence is two. Meaning you are sometimes living at the wife's house, and sometimes at the husband's house. You can say this is transient. It changes. You are living. So, now it's your turn, now it's my turn. Come to my place. Go to your place. You call your friends like this for sleepovers, for night outs. So, come to my place, I'll come to yours. Bilocal. Both are utilized. It is seen less. Normally, it is not seen. If you talk about India, which one is prominent? This second one, patrilocal. You see this here, where the bride is staying at the bridegroom's own house. Not at the bridegroom's parents' house. Bridegroom, meaning the groom or husband has built his own house, and where is she living? This is the exact opposite. Surilocal. In surilocal, the female is in her house. Meaning the husband goes to live in the wife's house. In her own house, the one she built. Ambilocal. In ambilocal, there is no choice of residence. Who will live where? So, things like this are seen. So, residence is one thing. And the structure is also seen in three bases. One structure is nuclear family. And the second is joint family. This is based on membership. In nuclear, you call it family. Sorry, I think joint is called. You tell me. Nuclear, I think it's called 'akal parivar' in Hindi. Even if it's not an official language, you should know. So, nuclear, I think it's called 'akal parivar', and joint is called 'parivar'. In nuclear family, there are members. Blood-related members are living. Mother, father, child. In joint, more people are living. Meaning the parents of the husband and wife are also living, and when the children get married, their spouses will also be living with them. So, here there is a feeling of "me," and here there is talk of "we," "our." So, it is a circulating term. You use that life score. You get it in any StudyIQ course. Maximum possible discount. If the maximum possible discount in a course is 10,000, you get 10. You get 2 from someone. But this code can be used universally. Yes, family is a universal institution. You talk about it. So, this code is also universal. StudyIQ platform. Moving ahead. So, we talked about joint family. Shared a particular roof. The kitchen is also shared. There is a lot of jointness or commonness. So, this was all about types. Now you will talk about the impact of different processes of cultural change, for example, urbanization, industrialization, and family movement. What is the difference? You have seen keyboard type families. It is seen in Israel. What do you see in it? The parents are living separately. The children are coming to a common place, and all the children are living together. That kind of grooming. That is also unlimited. Meaning they are going for schooling. They are in one place. Without schooling also, everything is happening together there. You have seen DINK family, also called DINKS family. What is the system? This is also an effect of urbanization. In DINK, it is Double Income No Kid. Meaning both members will work, both incomes will increase, and there will be no expense. So, this is the opposite. There was a movie of Govinda, "Aamdani Atthanni Kharcha Rupaiya." This is the opposite. Income is Rupaiya, and expense is nothing because you have not kept kids. You don't have to educate them, you don't have to educate them, their needs, their respect, all of that you will not see. So, there is double income, and in enjoyment, such things are also seen under the influence of these. And what else? Joint families are ending. They are becoming nuclear. From nuclear, they are becoming even smaller. Four or five members in a family, and everyone is living in their own homes, in their own separate residences. Someone has gone to Delhi for studies. Someone has gone to the South, to Bengaluru. Someone has gone somewhere else for a job. So, things like this are seen. The father's posting is somewhere else. So, you see things like this. Everyone is living with their house help. The maid or someone working for them, their house help. So, they have become their family. And the real family has dispersed, and everyone is living far apart. So, all these things are happening under the impact of these processes of cultural change. About 2.4. Moving ahead. Kinship. The literal meaning of kinship is relationship in Hindi. Your marriage. For you, your other relatives are also there, your uncles, aunts. They are your uncles by birth. And in your final, who comes? Those who are your in-laws, in whose house you are going after marriage. Husband is your opinion. If you are talking about it. So, this is the concept of consanguineal and affinal. Principles and types of descent. Descent. The system of descent is very important. In this way, the family tree is formed. It is formed. So, you decide descent and inheritance in a way. You are seeing. So, you use the surname. Usually, our society, local society, is very less. So, this is the thing that you also inherit the name, the surname, the identity. So, inheritance is not just restricted to the economic front. It is restricted to. It is expandable to multiple aspects. So, these things are seen, heard, and learned there. Descent. Now, descent is also of two types. There is a lot of dispute in this. And if you are not under our kind of guidance, then many people, I have read somewhere, I have taught in the Northeast, I have taught in the West, I have taught here in UP, and now I am teaching you here on a digital platform. So, what have I seen? There are many concepts, many confusions. One more thing that we haven't seen yet, time was short. Types of family. When we were looking at types of family, between joint and nuclear, there is a standard. And people have so much confusion about what is the problem between extended and joint. Extended. Extended. Textbooks that big toppers say to read and understand, even they have mistakes. There is no clarity, and it takes a lot of time. At least half an hour of discussion can happen on that. And to understand that, the time we have is less. Now we are talking about 14 hours. We can explain the complete difference in 14 hours only when we are looking at you, when we are explaining, how. When there are live classes. So, with the approval of this, you have to look at everything carefully, understand it. You have to read and understand the answers in this way. It will not be explained like a story anywhere. You need to know so many additional topics, so many authorized topics. So, join the batch by using the code U-Slide. And then we will meet. Then there will be great preparation. The journey of 325 will be completed in 500. So, if you talk about descent, generally, if you look at it, I am dividing it and telling you only generally. Because if I go into divided things, a lot of time will be consumed. That's why I have a standard difference between extended and joint. It is happening on the mother's side or the father's side. So, what will you call it? You will call it unilateral. It is of two types. One is matrilineal, and the other is patrilineal. You are doing it. If you are doing it.

The concept of inheritance, or descent, is either traced through the maternal line or the paternal line, or both, in a single line, which is called the "nonni" (grandmother). Within this, different types arise. There is double inheritance, or double descent, which is given in your syllabus. There is also parallel descent, bilateral descent, and here it will be B-parallel.

In parallel descent, the simplest form is that the female, or girl, traces her descent in the female line, or the line of females. And the boy traces his descent in the line of boys, or parallel to the gender or sex you are in that line. So that is parallel descent.

When things become a bit confusing, like we studied "B-local" earlier, don't get confused. In B-local, as a form of confusion, you are testing through different members at different times. You are tracing in the mother's line, sometimes you are tracing in the father's line. This is usually done in both lines, but at different times, meaning there is confusion here about whose line you will trace.

In B-linear, you see that for different purposes, perhaps you take the surname from the mother, the inheritance of wealth or economy from the father. The purpose changes. And a point of confusion is seen here in bilateral descent. Here, you are tracing your descent from all your biological relatives. So, your maternal grandmother, maternal uncle, paternal grandmother – you are tracing your descent from everyone on each side. So, this is generally the type of descent. There are many divided things that we discuss in live batches, which takes a good amount of time. Here, we have to cover everything in 14 hours.

Next, if we talk about, I think double descent types are covered. If you talk about forms, then these are your lineage, clan, phratry. What is a moiety? Divide any society, any group, into two parts. If there is a tribal group, divide it into two parts. The largest division in a group is the moiety, the smallest is the lineage, the clan is a bit larger than that, the phratry is larger than that. And the largest group you see. So, the progression has gone this way. What is the difference in these, all these things are discussed in live batches. Here, we have considered descent groups as general terms on the basis of size progression. This progression is happening in this feature.

When it comes to kinship terminology, some terms are descriptive, meaning different members use different terms for each member. Classification means a particular single term for a class of people. For example, take the example of descriptive terms: uncle, aunt, paternal aunt – you use different terms for each of them, you are describing them. But if you look at classification in English, only one term is used for them: "aunt." Meaning, a single classified term for a number of relatives. And in descriptive terms, you will design them in different ways. Even for maternal uncle, paternal uncle, and father's sister's husband, you can use the same term and explain it in that way. This is a very big concept in itself, mixed, and the thoughts of Multiplex on this are explained. So, how are these incorporated? So, it is a very big concept in itself, which is being discussed here in 300 working hours, especially in social anthropology with improper. But it is not possible to discuss these together. So, here we will just tell you as an introduction that you are dealing with different theories, how descent is established, what is its reason. Sometimes it is told that you are doing kinship so that someone can help you in bad times. You are doing kinship so that there is no conflict. So, all these things are discussed in this part.

Next is economic organization, Unit Number Three. We have read about economic organization and the economics of society. The economics of society and notes are limited by time and space. Reading economics in anthropology. Here, you have to read about organizations in a simple unit, Unit Three. Within that, the first head is: what is the meaning of economic organization? We had told you the meaning of organization. If you add economic means to this, then your economic organization is complete.

What is the scope and relevance of economic anthropology? As we told you, its scope is beyond the limits of time and space. What is its scope? Every type of society, modern, primitive, past, present. You apply its economic means, methods of production.

Why is it called static? This is its advantage. Research is not happening here. This is not good for the discipline. For the discipline to grow, it should be good. But for you, who are an aspirant, it doesn't matter how big a discipline anthropology becomes, how big a science it becomes. What matters to you is how you get selected by clearing the examination. So, for the people in the discipline, the researchers, it is not good that not much work is happening. But for you, it is very good news. This is also why it is taken. It remains static, you don't need to go here and there.

So, here we talk about the debate between formalists and substantivists. What is this question? This question often comes up: what is the debate between formalists and substantivists? You have to explain that here. You are reading these things. If you talk about it, then within this, you divide the entire group into different parts. They say that in anthropology, to know and understand the means of production or the economic setup of any society, what do you need? You need to have formal knowledge or an understanding of economics. Economic anthropology will study and understand the means of production of any society. Substantivists say that primitive economies are very simple in nature. They do not have modern tools and technology, nor specialization and complexity. So, you do not need to apply these different laws that you use in economics there. In simple terms, you can understand the concepts of primitive society.

If you talk about anthropological literature, based on who says what, you can divide this entire displacement into two parts. Some anthropologists are formalists in mainstream economics, and some are substantivists. If anyone asks you about economics, if we talk about formalists, which anthropologists will you name? When you hear the name of formalists, you have to use the name of Raymond Firth here. So, Raymond Firth is one of the primary, you talk about him, he is also a prominent anthropologist. And along with him, these three people are counted among the formalists.

And the other group, or the other side, is that they say that you need knowledge of economic principles, the principles of economics. Who are they? In economics, K. Polanyi, C. Arensberg, and N. Anderson. These three people come under this. If you want to remember this, how will you remember it? R S H, or Raha. You used to read "Raha" in math, right? L S = R H. In math, we used to apply it and read it. So, an easy way to remember is that formalist is equal to Raha. And here, if you want to read, there is a famous school, you have heard the name of branches in many places, DPS, Delhi Public School. You can remember it as Delhi Public School. So, substantivists are...

So, this is what you get. You can take a screenshot of this if you want. It is given on the screen on both sides. Who are the substantivists and who are the formalists? There are different people in different places, and you will find many more within this.

Second, you have talked about the principles governing production, distribution, and exchange. You need economic principles to understand this. They are talking about primitive as well as modern. They say that until you know these principles, you cannot do anything. The principles are: first, the principle of maximization, and second, the principle of rationalization.

Sachin Tendulkar, he scored around 70 or 76 centuries in America, or around 18000 something runs in ODIs on Cricbuzz, around 16000, meaning 15000 something runs in Tests. He didn't play much T20. He played in the IPL. It's not like he scored 18000 runs, and someone was around 17000 or 14000 in Tests. No one has scored that yet. When he retired, around 2013, finally, the IPL and other games were over. It's not like someone was close, like 14000 or 13000. No one has reached that yet. I don't know who is the nearest one. Even if someone is very near, they would be around 12000, 12:30. There should be a difference of 5000. There will be a significant difference in Tests as well. At one time, it was close, but he also retired. And still, someone's name is coming up. I am not sure. Someone is very close to him. But as we say, there are some Indians whose names are spoken all over the world, and there is one such Indian in our country. This is a matter of pride for us. Sachin Tendulkar is one of them, one of the greatest cricketers to have ever graced the game.

So, it's not like he crossed all these runs, crossed the 76 centuries, and said, "Now I am ahead of everyone, now I have become the greatest, now I don't need to level up." And he took those figures further, slowly reaching 885, even 99. Even there, his desire didn't end. Then he started saying, "Now score 100." How long will it take to score 100? Everyone knows. I think in 2012, that was completed. If I am not wrong, there was someone. You can see the date. So, people try to advance things according to their capabilities. They try to move to the next step of maximization. You don't run according to need. The principle of maximization says that it is enough for need, but it is never enough for human greed or desire. Singham says, "What is my need? No one's need is less." Today, everyone's needs are very high-end, very luxurious. So, maximization is saying that very thing.

And to give an example of this, two types are used. Who denies this? Who denies it? Substantivists believe that primitive economies are not like modern economies. Primitive, meaning the economies of tribal people, are beyond these principles. These economic principles do not work on them. Formalists say, study the principles of economics. Through studying these, you can understand the economic setup, not just of modern people, but even of tribal groups, if you want to understand their economy, you should take the help of these principles. But substantivists say that they cannot be applied because their subsistence level is such that they work only for their needs, not for greed, like becoming a millionaire, billionaire, getting their name in the Ups Times, and so on. So, they are not working on that. Therefore, substantivists say that the rules of economics do not apply to them.

So, the two types of maximization examples are used in your books, or we use them. When you are in live classes, if told briefly, Malinowski worked on Kula Ring above the linear system. He talked about different types of ceremonial exchange. Among them, you talk about the Kula exchange. What is Kula exchange? It is a system of exchange. We will explain it with an example later. Here, time is short. We explain it in live classes. It is a system where people give gifts to each other. What is its total meaning? The meaning is that people want to strengthen their bonds. It's not like they want to earn money from it. They work for a few hours, two to three hours, or a specific time, and in that time, their sufficient needs are met. If they work for two more hours a day, they will become very affluent, very rich people. But they are not doing that. They are not doing that work. They don't have that desire. Their need is met, that's enough for them. So, that's the thing, the rule of maximization is not working for them. They don't want to maximize their things. So, this is how maximization is misunderstood.

Next, you are talking about rationalization. You say that modern people are rational, logical. They find reasons behind everything. The measure of profit and loss is set behind everything. So, substantivists also deny this. They say that in primitive societies, for tribal people, or what you call simple societies, the biggest profit or the biggest thing is kinship, meaning the bonds, the relationships, are the biggest. Profit and loss are not seen in this way. This is their biggest capital. And for this, they use a very important term. What does it mean? Money is to the West, to Western countries, as kinship is to the rest of the world. In the West, money is dominant, but when you go to other parts of the world, the changes happening in organizations, organizations are diluting all those things. What do you say? "Na Bibi, Na Bachcha, Sabse Bada Rupaiya" (Neither wife, nor child, the biggest is money). So, that thing is now...

Let's clear this off and remind you once again. Batches are starting from 1:00 PM onwards. You can join the batch using the code US LIVE together for maximum discount and have a very fair chance to feel the energy and to feel the depth of anthropology and easily score 300 to 325 marks in a paper that comprises about 28% of the entire 1750, 1750 mains, excluding the interview. Of that, about 28% is optional. And if you cross the barrier of 320 or 325 in that optional, then you can imagine how strong your selection chances are. You have a lot of chances to get selected. What is it? We told you in the zoom session as well. It is an orientation subject that has been running with a success rate of 10.5% since 2013 to 2019. It is the only optional that has given India Rank 1 twice in the last 4-5 years. It is such an optional that in a single year, it has given four India Rank 1s as well. Look at 2017, there were 10 people in the top 10 ranks from anthropology. People from outside backgrounds are scoring so well. I think Akshat Jain from the 2018 batch, who is from IIT Guwahati, came here and scored so many marks through anthropology, above 300, maybe 325 or something like that, 335 I think, and through that, he got India Rank 1. So, you can imagine, that subject, which is not at the schooling level, and people from outside can use it so well, then what magic will that subject have? And to feel that magic, to join the batch, the chances are very high to knock on the doors of selection.

It's reciprocity everywhere. And we talked about the market. What is reciprocity? If you take something from someone, you give something back in return. So, if you talk about reciprocity, then you see three types here. Join the Telegram group. You will get this PDF there on the day this video is uploaded. Then you can zoom in and see it, or you can even ask me if you need these notes in a printed format. I can provide them in printed format. We are using handwritten notes here for revision, which is also easy for you. So, we are using them. Printed notes are also available. You can ask me on GPS World for this particular part, and I will provide it to you. I can upload it on Telegram. You can also join Telegram.

So, reciprocity here is of three types. And who told this? It was Sahlins, who recently gave a beautiful quote. When did he tell this? In 1972, when Bangladesh was liberated from the clutches of Pakistan, or when it was East Pakistan and became independent. Indira Gandhi's government. The nature is that this is a non-monetary market, happening between members of the community. Members of the society. [Music] Market exchange happens. This is non-market exchange. No money is given. That's why it's non-monetary. And here, you are giving goods and services. Instead of money, goods and services are exchanged. Between whom? Between friends, meaning customers and service providers. This is not a transaction between seller and customer. This is between your relatives, friends, neighbors, people. This is the relationship between seller and customer. These are its characteristics. And if you talk about the general, what happens? For example, if someone gives you gold, you can give them diamonds. Not diamonds, but gold. Not in quantity either. If you give 5 kg...

Rice is given, you can give him two and a half, give him 2.5, give him 10. The quantity is not dependent on nature either, meaning if someone has given you minutes, you can give them a vehicle in return. So, it's okay with its nature and also not dependent on the auction. If someone gave it to you on Diwali, you can give it on Eid, Holi, Christmas, or Gudhi Padwa. It is independent of all these things, hence it is balanced. Sorry, you are saying general. The second is, what happens in negative reciprocity? Repayment does not happen here. A very characteristic important thing is that it is very important to repay. If you are taking something from someone, and giving something back in return, only then is a bond formed, right? This is how our social bond grows, our network grows. What happens in negative reciprocity? You are getting less than what you are giving back, or you are giving back less than what you received. If you received 1 kg of rice and gave 2.5 kg in return, then that becomes negative. And once it happens, it is not called that. So, you call it general, but it was independent of quality and quantity. Usually, if you are doing something like this, where ten people gave you 5 kg, and you gave 2.5 kg to all ten, and you repeat this thing ten times, then that thing is called negative reciprocity. Negative reciprocity, where you are counting it. What is its effect? It is weakening your social ties and bonds. If you borrowed ₹500 from a friend, and you return ₹450, or ₹50 is not enough, or the change is not there, ₹480 is less. You understand once, you understand twice. If you keep doing this repeatedly, then over a period of time, it becomes a difference of ₹1000, right? So, this is known as a negative impact here, negative reciprocity. And your relationships, do the opposite of this. It is completely dependent on quality, quantity, nature, and auction. If you received 5 kg, you give 5 kg. If you received gold, you give gold. If you received it on Diwali, you give it on Diwali. And if you received a car, you give a car. Exchange has two types, meaning you are giving goods, services. Meaning, someone is a cobbler, and he repaired your shoes. Another is, you met a tailor, he stitched clothes. Both of you made a deal. So, goods for goods, or goods for services, or services for services. The second is money exchange. This happens in the market. Things, services, and gold are purchased with money. And they are also of two types, metallic or paper. Currency, meaning value, can be of two types. If you look at the form, paper, meaning printed notes, you can also call checks. They are also used. Is this part clear? What are the practices? We will teach you with examples, with case studies. There are lectures which, in themselves, comprise two to three long lectures, three hours each. It is not possible to cover all this ground. Based on community, you also have to look at different things. Especially if you divide the entire tribal community of India based on economy, then you will see different things in multiple places. How is it? Especially today, it is still happening. If you go to some tribes in the Northeast, you will see them fishing, even hunting and gathering. So, in different places, modes and economic means, economic practices are different. Next, we talk about how many cultural changes are happening on this. Everything, we were talking about kinship values. I hope this part of economic organization and economics is also clear. Let's move to Unit 4 in the series. Now, what is Unit 4? It talks about political organization and social control. What are political organizations and what is social control? You have to know, understand, and study this here. Everywhere, like political science is also studying this. So, again, we give the same reason. Political science studies modern society. This political science studies modern society. But here, you study primitive or simple societies. This political structure, political function, political functioning is happening. It's not like you go and study Panchayat Raj in the Indus Valley and it is taught in your syllabus. That doesn't happen. So, that is the thing, because that will become part of history, then part of policy, but not part of political science. In political science, what you are studying, you are talking about contemporary society. If you talk about a long tenure, and still it is a limited time. You are also studying and interpreting prehistoric societies through archaeological evidence. Interpreting mechanisms. That's why we say that political science studies modern society and contemporary society. So, our scope is also a branch of it, which you will study now. In the syllabus of UPSC, there is so much in anthropology. It is endless. Even in graduation and post-graduation, people who study anthropology at a higher education level, they also never, I can say, study more than 15% of anthropology. Understand? 15-25%. Even those who are researchers will not go beyond the scope of 35% because that research is not on anthropology as a discipline. It is on this particular thing. They might be experts on family, but not on marriage. Those who are doing political science, they are also studying so many things. You are finishing one unit. So, in a simple way, just the syllabus of UPSC. What is the organization of political organization? We will tell you in the introductory lecture. There can be fights, conflicts, disputes over different things. Whose land is this? Whose resources are those? Marx says many things, right? Who has the means of production? He is talking about that. So, all those things are very important. Therefore, to keep things under control, to keep them in balance, to give them structure, what do we do? The method of social control. Alright. In what way is social organization or political organization seen? It is at the band level. Some people are organized here. Right? There are no strict rules or structures there. And there is equality. No one is overtly ruling in this way. Hope my voice is clear, not disturbing. For disturbance, you have to see at the band level. Here, one thing happens a lot, which we call today. In today's terms, you will go to the next thing, or the next step you are seeing is from band to tribe. Here, there are not a few members, the entire large organization at the political level is designed. And in clusters, these people here, sorry. So, this is known as a tribe. The origin of ruling classes is starting to be seen here. Here too, there is a leader in the tribe, but slowly as you move forward in this line, leadership is functioning in a more structured way, is getting organized, and you will also see the function of atrocity. The ruling class decides their modes of control. It becomes a control over the means of production. So, all those things are seen. It has become a large group. Here, there were few people, a small population. Here, the population increased, and here the boundaries increased. All these things happened. Slowly, you go to the kingdom level. Here, an important concept comes, what is it? Territoriality. From which the concept of modern nationalism also emerges. Whose borders are these? Whose resources are these? Resources on rivers, meaning forests, who has the right to them? All those things start to be designed at this level. And the final method is the state, which you see in today's society, modern society. I am telling you this at the state level. I am not teaching you about the duck. I am not teaching you about tribal politics. Right? I am not teaching about kingdoms either. You come to history even up to kingdoms. This is your CSIR. This is your history. And take all the things behind it. You are going to study the political structure of primitive, simple societies. So, the state is a very large structure, geographically structured, functionally very rigid. Rules and regulations are in a very prescribed form. Right? There are rules, laws, punishments too. They have names. And they are not so regularized, not structured, especially not written. In the state, mostly there should be rules and regulations for everything. If you have to register a complaint, what is it? What is the punishment? Everything is decided beforehand. You are seeing this in the political structure. Concept of power and authority. Now, what is power and authority? Authority, there are three types. The village heads decide things, they also resolve disputes. If there is a small or big complaint, who is addressing all these problems? Traditional village heads. So, this has come down in a traditional way. Because it is considered part of Indian culture that you respect elders. Only when you become an elder, you will go to the place of elders, then you will also get respect. So, this is what you are seeing here. Traditionally, elders, meaning village heads. One is, who has it? Special individuals have this kind of authority given to them. Meaning, in decision-making and authority, you have a decisive power, a political power, that you can make decisions on various matters. If there is a dispute, you can resolve it. You can decide who will use what. Right? There are many such decisions. Authority, which helped there. Whoever has authority is deciding all those things. So, at the second level, we said charismatic authority. Then, those who are speaking have a lot of authority. A distinctive feature. Whoever has specialty. For example, who can it be? We can contact you with God. We will give you salvation in the next life. In the next life, we will make you human again. Or you will be born so wealthy. They can be magicians. Or you are saying, the healing expert, who can do things by magic. You can say, I will do this by magic. This is usually seen in primitive societies. So, it can be. And in different societies, people, here is an example given. Who can be among the charismatic ones? The example of a priest. The example of a leader. For example, if you take Gandhi ji as an example of a leader, then Gandhi ji had charisma. He was leading mass movements. People were connected to his words. The capacity of Gandhi ji as a human being, he could have taken the path of Hitler too. At such a large mass level, he could connect people with him. He could make the crowd do anything. Many people who are violent or, say, have extremist tendencies in the context of the freedom struggle. So, think if Gandhi, if those people believed like that, why didn't Gandhi use it? If Gandhi said, everyone pick up sticks, you would have driven the British away in two nights. He could have changed the direction and state of power, the ideology of people, and the direction in which they were moving. So, this charisma. Humans. It is used for Shah Rukh Khan. Shah Rukh Khan is the most charismatic in India. Recently, you saw in the Times list published in 2023, he is among various leaders of the world. Prime Ministers of different countries. Elon Musk's name is seen. Ronaldo and Tom Cruise. Various celebrities from around the world. Leaving all of them behind, he has become a pride of our country in a way. And again, the first position in the Times 100 list. No Indian is seen far ahead. You see big names. Many interviews you will see, they say that this person is very charming. When you talk to him, there is a divine energy that you feel within yourself. You also see that energy as genuine. So, in this way, he is treating people. Even the biggest person says, meeting him, he is big for you. You can be a fan of someone, but when you hear their interviews, they go and say, I met Shah Rukh Khan, and I felt like this. I sat with Shah Rukh Khan, and I became a statue. I didn't feel anything. So, there are many such people who have a systematic vibe. They can become leaders of that kind. Gandhi ji's words. You can talk about Birsa Munda. You can also talk about tribal leaders. It is said that Birsa Munda, he told people many times to rebel, and when I have such magical powers, or I will make you bulletproof. The bullets fired by the British will not affect you. So, in this way, such people, sometimes they influence people in a manipulative way through their charisma, and sometimes people are generally drawn to them, listen to them, understand them, agree with them. So, this is what you see in charismatic leadership or leaders who build charismatic authority. Second is legal and rational. What is it? It has a structure. There is a rule. Who has it? It's not about who has more charisma, or who is a great elder, male, or female. There is a structure here, and everyone has a chance. Rationally, whoever can become, will become. Let's take the example of voting. Let's vote. Whoever becomes. Anyone can become. A person from any background, any caste, any class. Whoever has the right to become a leader, Prime Minister, Member of Parliament, or Member of Legislative Assembly, according to the legal framework and legal system of India, all those individuals can become. If they are of the minimum age, then above that, for five years, ten years, twenty years, they can become. Right? Between the minimum and maximum years, anyone, regardless of their gender or sex, whether they have little money or a lot of money, everyone has that right. So, legal rationality is seen. How people are carrying authority. Power is defined as the ability to make someone do what you want. Simple definition. Meaning, you are imposing your will on another, or whatever you want, you can make anyone do something that you want them to do. You can say that you have power, strength. So, power also has two aspects. In political science, in political power, you study two types of power. One is your social power, and the other is political power. Social power is what? Then they have no political power. Political power is governing authority. Any structural power. So, that is your justified power or legitimate power. A person uses their strength, or that person also does not have the right. Like a traffic police officer, if he tells you to stop here, or show your license, why are you not wearing a helmet? Then he is using legitimate power, which the Indian Constitution and various acts provide him. Show your license. He might force you. Or if he has a gun in his hand, he might tell you. So, he is also using power. He can also use his gun and tell you. And what kind of power is he using? To organize things, to strengthen them. Here, we talked about the need for law. In simple societies, how these things are happening. We will see this in detail when our course is running. There is the concept of ordeal. Sita undergoes the trial by fire. You will see such things there. In many places, it is said that if you are honest, how are thieves caught? In simple societies, they say, put your hand in water, in burning water, in embers. If you tolerate it, nothing happens to you. So, it means you are truthful. And if you get a lot of pain, immediately pull your hand out, start crying, your hand gets burnt, cut. Then you are dishonest. You have done something wrong. So, these are the kinds of things that are studied in detail in these studies. Live classes are starting from April 24th. And my students, let's see if we can cross 10. That will be our target. And you can come and join the batch. Admissions are open. And our seats are limited. In live classes, you could still get entry. But this time, we have also included a test series. And we have a limited capacity for value evaluation. We cannot check the copies of 100, 200, 500 children. Quality. Today, you can check anything with your eyes closed. And this evaluation is a very important step in your test series. And we can do that for a limited number of people. Therefore, the strength of the batches is quite limited this time. So, come as soon as possible, enter the batch. Use the maximum discount code, which you call 'Live As Live', and take entry. Because when the batch starts filling up, the code will be replaced.

It is given, isn't it? Because the stalls are almost followed. Sometimes even all the coupons have been banned. The last segment, which is our first segment that we are dealing with today, is the marathon of Cultural Anthropology. This is divided into many comments. Think about what we saw in Cultural Anthropology today, this unit is your last one. That is about religion. There is a lot of conflict in the world today over this. Many things, fights are happening all over the world about this. What is religion? On the concept of religion, that religion is what we will see here today. Different approaches are asked, from which approach do you study it? Math is a very good approach here. If I write here, what are the approaches? It can be a sociological approach, a political approach, a historical approach, right? And many other segments, logical approaches exist. You can divide it into different segments. Different disciplines study it differently. If you look in Anthropology, there is an evolutionary approach. How did religion evolve? We will study here. It will also be given here that initially people believed in nature. They believed in magic and spells. And slowly, slowly, and finally, they started believing in a single God. That explains the solution to religion, that is the evolutionary approach. One is that it is taught through the diffusion approach, that religion must have come from somewhere, from one place. The concept of different gods is everywhere. The concept of karma is there. In many places, you will see the concept of reincarnation. The concept of doing good deeds, prayer, or worship is found everywhere. Right? If you talk about the end of the world, the concept of judgment day, talk about Christianity, right? And talk about deluge, if you talk about Hinduism, or talk about the Day of Resurrection, if you talk about Islam. There is similarity. So on this basis, it is said that this particular religion must have come from somewhere, and spread to other places. That diffusion, that diffusion, of course, happened. There is a functional approach, which wants to study on the basis of function. What is the basic function of religion? There is a structural approach, on what basis do you see religion structured all over the world? Right? These are all the approaches to studying religion. If you talk about the approaches, we have dealt with them. Here, only three are written: psychological. You can add that too. What is the psychological basis? Why are humans in such things? There is a symbolic aspect. Many approaches, when we go into detail in class, through case studies, we see so many approaches that you get a grip on religion, and understanding of religion. The way you think about religion now, the perspective from which you see it, changes completely. And when questions come in Mains, are asked in interviews, are asked in ethics, if any angle related to religion comes, then you will write as if you have some expertise. Sometimes they ask about family, about changes in family, joint families are disappearing. Such ethics papers can also be asked in interviews. Right? So all these things are very important, and they will increase your expertise to the level of an expert in Anthropology optional.

Next, if you talk about it, if we have seen evolution, there are different stages of evolution here for you. Some are here. Initially, people worshipped nature, or worshipped the soul. This is called animism. Slowly, they started believing in personal, intimate power. Believing that there is power in everything, power in God, power in this. Power in this style, power in everything. It works according to size, according to promotion. This is animism. After this, you have naturalism, meaning believing in nature, as we are saying. Right? That you see, we say that with every element of nature, we have every element of nature. There is a Tulsi tree, a plant, the Tulsi plant. You worship it. You worship the Sun God. You do Surya Namaskar. You worship the Sun God at night. You worship rivers. You are worshipping the Ganga river. So, you have connected your religious beliefs with the elements of nature. So that stage came, we came to naturalism. Totemism is the next step, where there is a particular object, an animal, usually a plant too. You cannot cut this plant, you cannot do this. Totemism is a kind of worshipable object for people. So that totemism. The modern stage is polytheism. And the latest is polytheism. Right? You have to see. If you talk about Hinduism, there is a debate. Many people say that here you worship Lord Ganesha, you worship Lord Shankar, you worship Lord Vishnu, Lord Brahma. You worship different gods. So this is polytheistic recognition. Other people deny this, saying that we are worshipping different forms, but the God in whom we believe, we consider that God to be one. So in Hinduism, people are divided whether it is polytheistic. How it originated, how it evolved, to study that, you can either come to the live batch, or you have another option. I have given a series of the evolutionary school here. Right? In which we have seen the work of many people like Tylor, Morgan. You must have talked about the concept in your YouTube. If you write there, you will find animism. Now, slowly, we will also cover Dark and others. So you will get this entire package with notes in natural form, with hand-holding, with everything. So you can do it in our excellent batch. There you will get everything ready-made, very easily, in a structured form, with excellent quality of notes, referred from multiple sources, not only from India but also from foreign sources.

So here you have talked about all these things. That which is associated with purity, you call it sacred. Those which are worshipable are sacred things. Right? Purity is associated with them. These are things that you, like when you go to a temple, or there is an idol, a tree, you see an animal like a cow. So with such things, there is a sacredness, or the river Ganga is a sacred thing. Right? So you say, don't throw garbage in Ganga, it has been given the status of a goddess. Cows are considered sacred by many communities in many countries. In India, in North India, if you see, it is forbidden because we worship cows as gods. Some say that you should not do it because it is sacred, we consider it divine. So you should not do such things. The Peepal tree, the Tulsi tree, all these things. All these have a sacred status. So you will be associated with this. And the other thing is profane. People have a problem with this, and in many places, it is opposite. These are sacred things, and these are not sacred things. It's not like that. Profane things are those which are outside the sacred. So they are not sacred, but what are they? They are common things. Like, you say this is sacred, and other cattle, like oxen, buffaloes, cows. You have associated purity with them, worship. Those beliefs, those emotions, are not invested in them. So what are they? They are common. Mundane. Ordinary. They do not have sacredness. Your religious feelings are associated with Ganga, and it's not like that. Brahmaputra river, or if you go to London, Yamuna, all these rivers. You are not associating purity with them like Ganga. So they are also rivers. You see them too. They have relevance. Many people of that region, they also worship them, pray to them. So they come under ordinary. Right? Like the Peepal tree, Tulsi, and many other trees. Religious connections are associated with them because in our mythology, Shaligram and Tulsi, all these things are connected with your concepts, stories. So it's not like you will say, save all these trees, cut the other trees. All trees are important. If you have to conserve, then you have to tell, keep all of them. Who will do it about balance? So this is the general thing. Things that are outside the realm of sacredness, common, ordinary things, or mundane, for which the term is used, those things are yours.

Now, what remains? Another aspect of religion. Before religion came, there were two things. If you want to know about them, you can see the difference between magic and magic and science. Then you will understand. Religion came much later. Before religion, people believed in magic. And there are many religions. There are many commonalities and many differences between religion and magic. Magicians are called different groups of people who perform magical religious things, or are involved in all these things. You call them magic. Religious performances. You will see the concept of priests in Christianity. Maulvis, or many others, you will see them in Islam. Here, you will find Purohits, Pandits. Right? All these people are in Hinduism. So these are all priests. They are part of religion. They act as a medium between God and you. They act as communicators. So they are priests. So these are religious functionaries. Shamans use medicinal things, connect hands in a way, using medicinal things. Using local knowledge, the medicine man. What do shamans do? They go to the supernatural, to another world. They go into a trance and control supernatural beings. That is, you go to them with your problems. They go to another world and get your work done by controlling spirits. So they are called shamans. They are quite prevalent in different societies. What are the sources of this? These people are oriented towards magical things. This was related to religion. All these people are oriented towards magical things. There is a difference between a sorcerer and a witch. Right? A witch is passed down through bloodline. Like, if there is a witch, then her son or daughter will also have magical powers through blood. Right? Whoever is in her generation, further down, will also have magical powers. They will also have magical powers. You call them witches. A sorcerer does not have these things by birth. Magical power. They have it by practice. This is the difference. Right? So this was about magic and religion, in short. It was seen quite a bit. Otherwise, it takes two to three lectures on religion alone. And here we are completing the entire Anthropology in 14 hours. So I hope it is understandable. And at least in a summarized form, when you have to present it in the final exam, then this summary formula, power marathon, mega marathon, which you are calling it. This is our first part, where we did the marathon of Socio-Cultural Anthropology. The entire social culture along with introduction is entirely covered within three hours and something. In three to three and a quarter hours, your entire segment is completed. In the next video, we will cover all the theories that are given. All those theories, evolutionary, diffusion, you see structural, that structural, we are seeing it. Cognitive, symbolic, modernism, postmodernism. You will see all these theories. We will finish all of them in a single lecture. So that will be a marathon of theories. This was about socio-cultural. And hope you liked this effort. Join us on the page, on the portal, to get its notes. And that is the Telegram channel of Anthropology. Important news, current affairs, you get here. And secondly, if you have anything to say to us, any request, or any request, then the safe, SAP, SAP World, this is our Instagram page. Here you can ask your queries. And finally, to get the maximum possible discount when enrolling in any course, what you have to do is just use the special code that is designed especially because of your interesting tone. Right? Here you study, I study, combining both of us, we say what is formed? S. So you have to use LIFE. And with LIFE, you get the highest possible discount. And finally, the thing we keep saying is that our batches are starting from April, from 1:00 PM onwards. Get into the batch at 159, along with live classes, what have you got? Test series. Right? For this particular price, you will get the price reduced when you use First LIFE or this LIFE. So join the batch and feel the magic of Anthropology, the power of Anthropology, the best optional that is available in UPSC.

Nestle's Maggi claims that its Maggi noodles are ready in two minutes. But many of you must have seen that Maggi noodles are not ready so quickly. It's just talk, advertising tactics, their business model. But yes, if anything can be cooked, prepared, and served faster than Maggi here, then we have brought it for you. That is what? That is the complete syllabus of Anthropology within what time limit? Fourteen hours. Yes, this marathon session of Anthropology that we are running, in which we have promised you that we will finish the entire syllabus of Anthropology in 14 hours. I am shooting it. So the first video has already reached you, and it is about socio-cultural anthropology, which we have completed in a time frame of three hours. Covered, strictly. And multiple units have come in it, which you have seen there. From the meaning, disciplines, relationship with other disciplines, significance, relevance. This entire portion, including branches, which branches are there in Anthropology. After that, we moved to Unit 2, 2.1, 2.2. We saw about culture and society. We saw research methodology. We also covered the unit that is about language. And after that, your entire unit on institutions, organizations, and associations. Right? That is, marriage, family, kinship, political organizations, economic organization, and finally religion. Along with this, we have also covered many cases in them. So that you get an idea in a summarized form of what the syllabus of Anthropology is and what its main purpose is. The main purpose here is that when you are sitting for the exam, one or two days before the exam, it is very difficult. And you have studied so much throughout the year. If you are talking about live classes, in your live batches, it is also five months or six months, including test series, on all the descriptive live model question papers. How are you going to summarize all those things that take five to six months? How are you going to revise them in two to three days? So to end that hassle, to solve that problem, we have started this session like Study IQ's Maha Marathon Power Capsule, where we are going to make your entire revision process easy. And even for the people who are unaware of Anthropology and are choosing any optional subject, if they want to get an idea of what they are going to study within the option, then our marathon series, which is 14 hours, which we have brought in different parts. Social culture today, we are covering with your theoretical parts. That is, in this, you study the thoughts. All these portions, you can study and get an idea. So it is going to be very useful for them. This marathon series. Also, for the students who are enrolled in undergraduate and postgraduate courses in Anthropology, it is also quite significant for them. Also for the parents who are seeking to prepare for your examinations, they can also take from this. They can clear many notes, many doubts, and understand them. So it is a holistic series. Similarly, like we call Anthropology a holistic science. Right? It is a branch that studies humans in a holistic fashion. So similarly, our mode of operation here, what is our modus operandi, is also going to be holistic. So you can achieve multiple targets with one arrow here. It is going to be utilitarian for many types of people. And before starting it here, as I told you, what we are going to cover today is on logical theories and thought. Right? Thoughts or theories, the question that you see here. Now, if you talk about thoughts and theories, I think my voice is clear. Let me check if the voice is clear. All right. So here we were talking. We told you that in 1750, if you talk about social, dedicated to words, you talk about anthropological thoughts, physical. Then in Paper One, you will see three segments. First, what is your, where you study marriage institutions, organizations, study Anthropology as a discipline, what is its relevance, what are its branches. All these things are one part. They take equal length. And roughly, if you look at it, I will tell you first. And the second part is here, physical. And a little late. Paper One. The third is thoughts and theories. Institutions, organizations, relevance, all these things you are covering in Paper One. So this is roughly covered in one month. You can cover or finish the entire syllabus. So this also roughly takes one month. But it is slightly exceeding that one month because at the beginning of Paper One, there are also talks of primatology, and many other different concepts, works. You have to read about gross senses in anthropometry, nutrition, epidemiology. All these things you are.

You are watching, so IT Tech, fully summation, more than one month, you are right. And if you talk about thoughts, this also took a month's time on its own. So Paper One is a comparatively longer paper, right? Thoughts, which is a small thing, confined to just one unit. In Paper One, you will see more than 12 to 14 units. If you combine all the portions, there are more than 20 units. And out of that, a particular unit six, which is on Anthropological Theories, all the thoughts you are seeing here, and that single unit alone is taking you one month. On one hand, 20-25 units are being covered in two months, and here a single unit is taking only one month. So the part of thoughts and theories is very significant, and it becomes very important for any student to know and understand its theoretical aspect to study. So moving to the particular thing, which we are covering as thought, here you see, if you pick up the syllabus, we have highlighted it for this reason. Here we are only focusing on the syllabus series that is also running, and in that also, our focus is entirely on what is written in Kimber and Amber, what is explained. Now, we can tell you things from all over the world, but what should be the focus? That you are carrying forward the thing you are taking. So here also we are proceeding according to the UPSC syllabus. So, for example, if we tell you about Classical Evolutionism in the marathon, then there you will only see names like Morgan. We will focus only on these three. Main, Maclean, Merit, we don't need to talk about them because they are irrelevant for your revision. If there is a story, we will tell it. We see all these things when we are covering the full-length batch, discussing their important work in a concise form. Here, we are directly focusing fully on what is in your syllabus. So, if you talk about the first school, the school of Classical Evolutionism, you will basically see two here. First is Classical Evolutionism, and the second is Neo-Evolutionism at point F. So, in general, if you talk about the school of evolution, I think in the next slide, we have done something else good. We have told you that on our Telegram space, Decode, you get all the PDF material, slides, quizzes, and all sorts of things. They are delivered. On the day a video is uploaded, on the day we are discussing this, all these things are uploaded for you within a maximum of 24 hours. So you can join us by typing "Anthropology Decode" on Telegram. In all these things, we have tried to use my personal handwritten notes because handwritten notes are very important for revision, for preparation, for concepts, for complete holistic information, for scoring more marks, for conceptual clarity. You take live classes and lecture notes. What I am going to teach in detail in 400 hours in live classes, you will understand that, and along with that, the lecture notes you will get in the course, you will be taking those. But for revision, you don't have so much time that you can read this entire booklet in two to three days. It's not like that. That's why there you will get handwritten summarized notes, which we will provide. We are still working on that, and they will also be delivered to you in a very structured manner along with your course. So you will see handwritten notes there, and you will also see the crackers, the gist of the material, the PPTs that we are using, we will also provide those. So handwritten notes and this particular marathon series are best suited for your revision purpose. That's why instead of using lecture notes or PPTs or PDFs in the marathon, we have used the structure of handwritten notes in a short way here. Although these are not your notes, the ones that will be delivered to you will be designed very well and we will work on giving them to you. And many things in it are structured. You can call them my personal notes, which were very helpful for me in my preparation journey and revision. You can take all of that. You can take it, and when you combine the marathon and these hands, or the handwritten notes that will be delivered to you, and look at them, your revision of the entire course can be covered very easily in a maximum of two to three days, if you give a significant amount of time to it. If you give 4-5 hours a day, then it is covered very comfortably in three days. So, this is how we have used it here. Of course, I didn't have any marathon system when I was preparing. I had to make handwritten notes myself, and you can see that we are also finding and reading the things we are studying. So no one made a marathon for us. But we understand that we can somehow ease your difficulty, your problem of revision, your time constraint. And for this, we could have put it in live, but our concept is the YouTube channel option. So first of all, you see that the evolutionary school of thought in anthropology, what does it say? All the schools of thought that you see here are addressing some question or the other. What are the questions? What, when, where, from, why? It addresses things like that, and what was the result, meaning what was its conclusion, what was its result? All these theories are addressing such questions. Sometimes it can be about a particular trait, sometimes about an institution, sometimes it can be used in terms of some other example. In general, if we can say, it is talking about culture and society, right? Because under what are you studying this? Theories are part of culture. So you are trying to understand culture and society. For example, the evolutionary school says that culture has evolved. It was something else before, and something else now. When, that too, the diffusion school and the evolutionary school together tell you. Some things will be told by the evolutionary school, some things you will understand and see within diffusion. Why, that functionalism tells you. And in which form, you see structuralism or functional structuralism. That school tells you and shows you there. In this way, and later, what is the result of culture, right? On what, the result of culture on human behavior, personality, different dynamics, what is that thing telling? That is your culture, sorry, not culture material, your school, you call it. I think this is it, the culture and personality school. That was telling the result of the process on culture, on personality, on personality, on behavior aspects. Cognitive and symbolic theories, all these theories are also saying these things. And symbolic and interpretive theories. And some schools, all these theories that are formed, in the end, you will see a school that completely demolishes all their statements, saying that these are hollow talks, these are false, and powerful people are planting and running such things in your minds. That school is, you also study this in sociology. You must have heard the name of some people. Some people call it Foucault. I think there is no problem, you should understand the concept. How you pronounce it is up to you. So you have understood this. How theories work, what is a theory, and then you try to validate it in the form of a hypothesis, and then you test those theories on an empirical ground level. If they work, you accept them at a universal level or at a discrete level for some societies. The upcoming evidence, at any time, those theories are rejected. So theories are never immortal. What facilities, what technology, what new dimensions, what new knowledge, what new set of practices, trends have developed, according to that, theories are also rejected. We are just telling you the concept of things. And we are taking 19 minutes of time. The time for means, if we count it separately now. So let's start. We had talked about the evolutionary school. The evolutionary school is telling what it is doing. On which it believes. First is PUM, which we call PUM. I have told you. You have seen some parts of the theories covered in the YouTube series. PUM, the Psychic Unity of Man. That is, it says that humans react in a particular way to a particular condition, a particular environment, a particular stimulus, or impulse, all over the world. Cognitively or at a cognitive level, all of us human beings are connected. And that's why you see similarities all over the world. There is religion in America, there is religion in India, there is religion in Africa, there is religion in Australia, in any corner of the world, you find the concept of religion. Practices, concepts, these may be different, but religion as a structural and functional entity is found all over the world. Managers are found all over the world. So where did this come from? How is it possible that everywhere? Mount Everest is found only where Mount Everest is. The river Thames is found where it is, or the Sahara Desert is where it is, or the Gobi Desert is where it is. Mentally, we are connected in a way. That is, if there is nothing to eat anywhere, then humans will either depend on trees and plants, or they will hunt animals, or whatever they get by gathering, by fishing, they will subsist on that. So they also explain economics as evolving in this way. That is, when there was nothing, what did humans do? They used to collect things. They got some berries, some plant products, and lived on that. They used to do hunting and gathering. If they were in a coastal region, they used to do fishing. So they lived on subsistence level, meaning as much as they needed, as much as they could live on. From this, they evolved. The evolutionary school is telling everywhere, from where what evolved. So as society and culture slowly evolve and move in a new direction, you see new economic means getting added. New dimensions become part of their culture and society. Then they will start horticulture, slowly shift to shifting cultivation, and then to cultivation. The next step will be that you will see modern forms of agriculture. And after that, in recent times, market economy will replace the subsistence level economy. The primitive economies, the primitive economies, will be replaced by modern economies. When modern economy comes, marketplaces will come, the system of money exchange will come. You are doing collection, gathering, hunting, and you are fishing. From this, you have come to modern economic means. That today there is digital payment through UPI. So in a single line, you see evolution. On this basis, we are also seeing within different schools. This evolutionary school is divided into two ways. Let's take the darker shades here. It will be fine. I think again it is the background. So the evolutionary school is also divided into two directions. One is Classical Evolutionism, and the second is Neo-Evolutionism. We will talk about it when we come to it. For now, we are going to look at Classical Evolution, which is a big school, the earliest school you see in the literature of Anthropos. Now, the classical school itself is divided into different directions in different ways. First, you see it divided by region, geography, or nation. That German evolutionary anthropologists are saying something else, in which you can name Bastian. British anthropologists, you will see some other names here, saying something else. Taylor, Maine, Maclean, and Frazer. If you talk about the American school, Morgan is a big name there. He is saying something else. So, one division is on the basis of nation. Second, you will see it divided by the nature of theories. There was an anthropologist named Junior, who comes in this school. Here you see, in the evolutionary school, they come in the Neo-evolutionary school. They have divided the entire evolutionary school into three types of parts based on nature. Based on region, nature. Unilinear, second, multilinear, and third, universal. Those who will come in the classical ones, all of them, are unilinear evolutionists. What does it say? That culture has evolved in a single line. Like we saw, first you are talking about gathering, hunting, collection, and then you come to fishing, and slowly different ways, horticulture, shifting cultivation, agriculture, and then modern trade practices. So it is moving in a single line. There has been no branching off. That is, evolutionary things are happening in a single line, and they explain everything as evolving in this way. We have explained economics. They also explain marriage in this way. What was there before? The stage of promiscuit. Promiscuity means people were free, they used to marry anyone. There were no rules and regulations in society. Today, slowly, a sense came, regularization came. So group marriage, neighbors, they used to marry them. Multiple marriages were seen there. Then you see polyandry coming, and slowly, step by step, the present form, which you consider the most developed form, or which unilinear anthropologists consider it, is monogamy. That is, one person is marrying one person, one male, one female. The system of one partner. Many rules and regulations have come. So this is the evolution of marriage. Similarly, the evolution of family is also happening. So they explain the evolution of every system, all institutions, organizations. Even religion, for example, they explain its evolution. And these anthropologists, who we talked about, a big name in the British school, the father of modern anthropology, what is he called, sometimes? He is Mr. Taylor. He published a book in 1871, "Primitive Culture," in which he gave the first scientific definition, but he also explained evolution. All these people have explained evolution. They have explained the evolution of religion. The first stage they described was animism. They said that the first stage was where people believed in souls, animism. Anima, from the word anima, meaning belief in soul. So people believed in souls. Slowly, time passes, people move forward, and concepts evolve. You see them evolving. Then they go to practices, to animatism. They believe in different things. Things like magic come. Worship of nature begins. People start worshipping nature. Then another stage, a very advanced stage, you see in recent times. What is that? There you see polytheism, meaning belief in many gods, multiple gods. And the latest you see is monotheism, meaning belief in a single god. So they are explaining the evolution of religion in this work. Similarly, others have books like "The Origin of Family." Mr. Morgan, he has done a lot of work on family. And his book is "Systems of Consanguinity and Affinity of the Human Family." In human society, you see that he describes two types of terminology. One is descriptive terminology, and the other is classificatory terminology. Descriptive terminology was seen. And now you see classificatory understanding. If you ask now, what is descriptive? For example, you use many terms for different people, right? So your particular relationship is known. You describe it. Like the relatives in the male line of your parents, you are using the term "mama" for your mother's brother. For your father's brother, you are using the term "chacha." You use the term "chacha." And similarly, for different relationships, you use different terms. So you see terms like "mousi," "bua," "chachi," "tai." So you are describing this affinity. This happens in primitive societies. It used to tell about beyond and closeness. But if you go to Western society, which is very self-centered, materialistic, there you will see an evolved form of kinship terminology. And in that, what is it? They are using a particular set of relatives with a class of terms. That is, for their aunt, their uncle, their mother's sister, for all of them, they use the term "aunt." A particular term. Similarly, whether it is "chacha," "mama," "fufa," "tai," anyone, they use the term "uncle." In this way, they have divided every system into stages. Evolutionary stages. Their belief was that the psychic unity of man is a principal component. Because of which, when you analyze things and people all over the world, things develop in a particular way. They have also divided society. And this has been heavily criticized. They said that some societies, especially ours, you see first.

You can tell the world in the East and West, then non-Western societies, they called them primitive societies. They also divided primitive societies into how they are evolving. The first stage, meaning the one we relate to, the one related to tribals, many people in Asia, they did this to Asian societies that you see at the stage of savagery. Then they described the stage of barbarism, and finally, the stage of civilization. Here, people are living like savages, there are no rules or regulations. We also talked about marriage, so the unarranged marriages that are happening. In barbarism, a little bit of a structural basis is formed, right? People start adopting some economic means. You can say they become partially savage, but still not completely advanced. And to describe their society and the Western front, the term they are using is what? They are addressing it on the civilization front. The most intelligent people, the best, the most advanced are also considered. So this is the evolutionary school you see here. Next, if you talk about the syllabus, the name of Tylor was there, we have seen that, right? Tylor's is from 1871, so the most important work is Primitive Culture, which we have told you about. Morgan's, which you see around 1851, you can check it once, around 1851. The book by Morgan, the one with infinity, or sorry, the one published in his book, its name is League of the Iroquois. His later work is published. So these are Morgan's works. Now, the third name given in your syllabus, you will ask why are you telling only these names, there are others too. In your syllabus, Tylor, Morgan, and Frazer are named under classical evolution. So the second name, Frazer, he was also an evolutionist, in the British school, Tylor is there, right? And his expertise was on magic. How is he describing the evolution of society? He is describing the evolution of society in terms of magic and science. This is how he is describing it: first there is magic, then science comes, and the stage in between is religion. So he was describing the evolution in an evolutionary fashion, that if you trace the evolution of humans to control the supernatural, supernatural power, or the existence of the supernatural in the world, and the beliefs associated with it, then it will be like this: first magic came, then religion comes, and in modern society, you see science. His work on magic is very important, which you should always keep in your mind. The Golden Bough, it is often called the Bible of anthropology, it is a work on magic and religion. Tylor has praised it a lot, I mean, sorry, Frazer has praised it a lot. You also read his name in the functional school. So Frazer, here, he talked about magic and all that, and among them, he has specifically explained magic. And while explaining magic, he says that the rules related to magic in primitive society, in earlier societies, the laws are divided into two fronts. You see two types of laws. First is the Law of Similarity. This means like results in like. The magic that arises from this, the magic that results from this, what do you call it? Homoeopathic magic or imitative magic. For example, you see in dolls, many shows and movies have been made, and Conjuring and all sorts of movies, Conjuring 3, you might have seen it recently. In dolls, black magic is practiced there, and they prick the doll or strangle it, then the real person whose doll was made, whose effigy was made, is affected. Why? Because there is similarity between that doll and the person. Similarly, some societies believe, primitive societies believed that it was raining, and with it, thunderbolts were coming, clouds were thundering. So they thought that the clouds were thundering, hence it was raining. So many times when it didn't rain, they thought if we could produce that sound, it would rain. So they would go to very high places and roll stones, from cliffs, from very high places, into valleys or sloped areas, and throw them. They thought that the rumbling sound that would come from it would be similar to thunder, and it would rain. You can say that their belief in this has decreased a lot. So you see this thing, magic, and here is the Law of Similarity. The second law is the Law of Contact. And the magic related to this, the magic that results from this, you call it contagious magic. What does this law say? Once in contact, always in contact. Once you come in contact, you remain in contact for life. And something, what do they say? In magic, what practice is there? To do black magic or any other kind of magic on a person, they search for something of that person. Their hair, their body part, their teeth, any bodily fluid, things like that. They bring those, their clothes, their shoes, their slippers, and conduct magic through them. Why? Because they have been in contact with that person, and they are completely in adherence to their body. So this is what they are describing there. So this was about the classical evolutionary school. There is a lot more to tell, and it is very difficult for me too, what to tell you, what to leave out. There is a time of 90 minutes, how much will we cover here, but still, we will try to summarize as much as we can cover here. Next, if you talk about the diffusion school, this was the next step, right? In the 19th century, you see the positional school. In the 20th century, you see the diffusion school in the early 20th century. What is diffusion saying? It says that man is basically uninventive. I think in my notes, there is a term written here. It says that man, generally, is uninventive. What is written? Inventions were made only at one particular time and place. Man does not invent things repeatedly. Take the COVID vaccine, many countries are making different vaccines to show their superiority, but if a successful vaccine is made, you use that and mass produce it. If its success rate is good enough, then you tell how you made it. The entire knowledge, you give it to other places, and everyone starts mass production using their labs. Research is also needed, there is nothing wrong with that. And there are many countries that cannot afford such modern research and laboratories, many cannot do mass production. So what did they have? Developed nations, India is also providing such vaccines to many places. It was doing that. What is the idea behind this? Once an invention or discovery is made, not everyone will discover it again. They will share it, borrow it. This is easier than inventing. It saves effort. The diffusion school says that man, in general, is uninventive. He does not waste time on things repeatedly. He borrows things from people, takes them on loan. This is how you see it. Any invention happens only once at a particular time and place. And the rest of the world, people, either share it, borrow it, ask for it, or imitate it, copy its story. If one person makes a tea stall, then everyone leaves their degrees, leaves their work, and thinks this is a good success model, and starts imitating it. So these kinds of things you see in company studies. For example, you see here, excellent content has been provided for so many years, and today you see that platforms from all over the world are working here, helping students at affordable prices. And on the other hand, people have developed this as a complete business model. So this is what you were seeing there, that people copy. Next, if you talk about how to define the diffusion school, cultural diffusion is the process by which cultural traits discovered or invented in one society spread directly or indirectly to other places. It happened in one place, then it diffused to another place. This is the process. Suppose this is culture or society A, let's say America, and this is New York. Something is discovered here, and it reaches this place. So the mode by which it is reaching, what do you call it? You call this diffusion of practices. There can be many modes of diffusion. As you see Mughal architecture, Mughal cuisine, all these things are very prominent in India. Lucknow is famous everywhere. Tunday Kababi is very famous. Hyderabadi Biryani is very famous. So the taste, but where did it come from? It was not India's own acquisition, but when the Mughals, or you talk about Islamic traditions, especially the Mughals, came here, then such things, practices from outside, you are talking about travels coming, many histories, many things that you are seeing. They come from outside into our society, and many people took knowledge from us to their countries. How do they take it? We talk about the invention of zero, mathematical formulas. In Arthashastra, many political doctrines are written which are copied by people all over the world. So all these things you will see in what form they go, through the process of diffusion. So this important process you are seeing. Its agencies and modes are different. You see the taste of Mughals, their forms of dress, you see them here. So in what form does anything establish itself? This form, what do you call it? This form is of cultural contact, or this phenomenon is of cultural contact. So culture, in a way, is in contact through any agency. Contact does not mean that these two countries have come together. Through some route, some mode, some medium, their contact has happened. For example, a traveler comes. Travelers have come here. Bernier came here. Al Masudi came, Ibn Battuta came, Iching came, all these people came. So they are bringing their things, their knowledge here, and taking a lot of Indian knowledge back to their countries. For example, you are talking about the invention of zero, mathematical formulas. In Arthashastra, many political doctrines are written which are copied by people all over the world. So all these things you will see in what form they go, through the process of diffusion. So this important process you are seeing. Its agencies and modes are different. You see the taste of Mughals, their forms of dress, you see them here. So in what form does anything establish itself? This form, what do you call it? This form is of cultural contact, or this phenomenon is of cultural contact. So culture, in a way, is in contact through any agency. Contact does not mean that these two countries have come together. Through some route, some mode, some medium, their contact has happened. For example, a traveler comes. Travelers have come here. Bernier came here. Al Masudi came, Ibn Battuta came, Iching came, all these people came. So they are bringing their things, their knowledge here, and taking a lot of Indian knowledge back to their countries. Bernier, you see, was a very good physician, so he learned many things, medicinal knowledge from here. You see the texts of Sushruta, the work of Sushruta, his different surgical modes, you are talking about. There was a lot of knowledge in our country. People took from us. We took a lot of knowledge from others. The diffusion school is also divided into different schools: British, German, and American. And each has its own criteria or significance. For example, if someone learned from Egypt, then here the diffusion school believes that one particular place is the center of civilization, and all the culture you see in the world, the civilization, has its central point, and everyone has taken things from here, found them, seen them. If you go to Egypt, you come to India, you see it here, you see it there too. So they think that all those things are the oldest, hence they think that culture centers or civilization. The American school, you see, they talk about culture areas, or what you call culture circles. Anthropologists like Kroeber, Wissler, you read about them in detail in live classes. They talk about culture areas. What are they saying? We have created a particular geographical area. Inside this, there are different culture areas, which you call independent cultures. And they are related to each other, interconnectedness between them. And in the middle of this, there is a center of culture, where culture is present in its most concentrated form, least diluted form. For example, you see the center of Hinduism, especially the Vedic practices, the hymns written, you see them more concentrated in North India. The tradition of devotion is famous in many places across India, and it appears to you as the focal point. Which place is associated with which four places? In its purest form, culture. Another festival, I think it happens in Bihar, and I am not able to recall the name of that particular festival. Chhath Puja is that festival. Slowly, things diffuse and have reached many regions, many regions. It is also celebrated in UP, in MP. Many people, even from different places in Bihar, have gone to many places. So naturally, they celebrate it. And hearing from them, seeing them, many people who are not native to Bihar, in other states, for example, if a citizen of Bihar goes to Karnataka and his neighbors see him celebrating Chhath Puja, then they also start celebrating Chhath Puja. So this practice, you can say, has diffused from Bihar to Karnataka. But in Bihar, in the form you see it, with that concentration and purity, you will not see it there. Similarly, there might be some practice from the South that people are celebrating in the North, but it is not found with that purity. So this is what they call the culture center, where things are seen in their purest form. These culture areas are what they call these different zones, they call them culture areas. Each has its own uniqueness, and all these culture areas are interconnected within a geographical limit or geography. Next, we talk about which theory we have. Very important theory, its name is, let's write it here, Functionalism. We just talked about what it addresses, right? Now we need to talk about it. There are two things. You can read the points here, or take a screenshot. I will not take much time. Back to the topic. It says that every culture, and every unit or every thing that exists in a culture, has a function, a purpose. Nothing is useless. For example, and while describing this theory of needs, they give a lot of importance to the biological component, and also to the psychological component, and the cultural component. That is why their theory of needs is often called bio-cultural and psychological functions. Bio-cultural functionalism and psychological function. It is also called that. They believe that humans have different needs, and the different institutions you see in society, like marriage, family, religion, all these things, are fulfilling these needs. That is why they exist. And they have divided these needs into three different groups. First is your primary needs, second is secondary needs, and third is tertiary. If you say what different names are given to this, then these are your basic needs. Life cannot go on without them. Humans have to fulfill them. So all these things come under basic needs. You call them. If you talk about the sex need here, a biological need of humans, then what derived organization do you see to satisfy it? Marriage. Marriage and courtship. You see, humans cannot live alone. They need cooperation and partnership. They cannot live in isolation. To fulfill that, you also see the system of kinship and family. So derived needs are fulfilling basic needs. And after your needs are fulfilled, to integrate society, the system around those needs, you count it under tertiary or integrated. What connects society. You can take religion as an example. It also works to unite and divide society. There is nothing wrong with that. So fights and conflicts also happen there, because of which it exists, according to himself. So this is his theory of needs, along with Malinowski. And this is the domain or principal concept of the functional school. Even if you look in the notes, what salient features does it mention? First, that culture is a means of satisfying human needs, which we have mentioned here. The medium of fulfilling the fundamental needs of humans is what you see here. What is the function of culture? Culture exists.

So, its function is to adjust marriages. The family had something else, religion had something else. And in this way, color means satisfaction, certain functions. Every aspect of color, within color, there are political organizations. Economic organizations are also part of color. Family, kinship, all these are also its part. And every part of it, every element, every aspect, has its own function. Color itself has a function. The elements within color, all these we have talked about, they also have their own divisible functions, which we have told you here. Okay. Next, these needs are fulfilled with the agency of social institutions. Social institutions, go to the first lecture, it was explained to you there. First marathon series on social policy, there we have explained social institutions. Marriage, family. You see both an institution and an organization. And what are these institutions and organizations? These are forms of social organization. They are a means or medium to organize society in a way. So, in this way, the fourth point is culture. These institutions are independent but also interrelated. Marriage is a separate concept from family. Family and religion are seen as separate concepts. Okay. So, each of these things, while being independent, is related to each other. I hope this part is clear to you. It is very important work, which we will talk about here. There is not enough time to discuss it. But some special things about Malinowski, we will tell you. His very important contribution is that he focused a lot on fieldwork. And he went to a place called Trobriand Islands, about 10 years after the First World War. And he got stuck there. And because he got stuck, the government did not let him leave, because the World War had started there, and due to enemy nations or threat, you cannot go from there. So, he was forced to continue his work. And the work he had decided to do for, say, six months, was going on there for more than three years. Although he did not do the entire work in different parts. From 1914, his work was going on. Roughly from 1914 to 1918, you see the entire tenure of World War I. His work is divided into two parts. One in the Trobriand Islands, where he spent about a year, one or two years. And the second in New Guinea, where he worked with the old people, studying them, understanding them. And fieldwork is a great contribution because no one had worked for such a long tenure before. So, he was forced, but still, he worked. Maintaining a full diary, writing down what you see, observations. He taught people how to do fieldwork there. One more thing he did there, which was very important, was the method of participant observation. Which Franz Boas, another anthropologist, whose name we have mentioned and explained in the YouTube series. The saying of Franz Boas about observation, and although Franz Boas had first put both these things, fieldwork and participant observation, in a theoretical way. And he himself had worked on these lines. But no one had done it with such dedication as he did. So, he gave that thing a practical and new dimension. And one more thing he did, which only Frank talked about, what was that? Studying culture in the native language. If you want to understand people by going to Bihar, you will have to learn Bhojpuri to understand their society well. If you go to the South, you have to learn Kannada, Malayalam, Tamil, Tulu, and other languages. So, he learned native languages, understood them, and did his research in them. A very important book of his, "The Western Pacific," can also be referred to here. What is written in it, what are the important things, although they cannot be dealt with here, we can tell you in live classes. It is a very detailed part. He talked about that. He talked about art. Many other such means and modes of economic systems, he has explained. He has discussed it on five different aspects. So, this was all about Malinowski and his work of Positivism. Next, we talk about a related work. Although it is a very debated thing, that here, where the founder of Extremism is, you saw Bronislaw Malinowski. He was the founder of Functionalism. And there was a big conflict with the main proponent of this school, whose name is Radcliffe-Brown. Radcliffe-Brown. So, if you look at it, based on the body parts of a human being, he was explaining things to people. That is why it is also related to the biocultural system here. It is tagged under the name of biocultural theory. Like the body has different parts, and all parts are structurally connected and performing some function. In this way, it was explaining culture and other systems. That everything has a structure, a framework, and each different part performs a different thing. Your legs provide locomotion, they augment your movement, exact movement, and different movements. The head helps as a cognitive and visual apparatus. So, the structure of everything, the structure and function, they combined. The interesting functional school associated with Malinowski, he first worked on it, and he gave the idea. Malinowski only talked about needs, the theory of needs. And later, he accused Brown of associating his ideas with himself. So, he does not believe that Malinowski is the father of Functionalism. Because he says, "This was my work, brother. What did you do? You stole something, in a way." So, here you read that it is a sociological theory that tries to explain why society functions the way it does. How is society functioning? What is its structure? So, why are all these things the way they are? Secondly, it focuses on the relationship between the various social institutions that make up society. Like the body has different parts, similarly, if there is society, then in society, there are different institutions: marriage, family, kinship, religion, politics, economic means. All these things we have talked about are independent, yet interrelated. So, by studying these institutions, he wants to decode it. Like the name of our channel is, we are decoding the positive. In a similar fashion, he wants to decode society and social thoughts. What is his idea? This idea, you see, society is made up of institutions which are cohesive, have common norms, and share common norms and culture. One thing, which we just said, is written here. Radcliffe-Brown used the term "function" before "function." He used it before. And therefore, he does not believe that he is the father of functionalism. He says, "The idea of needs or function, my contribution should be counted." So, some people also say that for Brown, the only acceptable definition of function was the contribution an institution makes to the maintenance of the social structure. So, here you see glimpses of functionalism in many of his statements. While criticizing what Malinowski said, he is also using many things of functionalism. So, in a way, this is a refutation from Brown towards Malinowski. That is why his entire work remains in the shadows. And you consider it as a swing between these two things, on one side, and on the other side, and it is swinging like a swing in between. Next, we come to another major school of thought, which is Structuralism. A good thing about them is that they did not criticize anyone. Like all others, we saw that diffusionists and evolutionists are criticizing. Functionalism or their school, structural functionalism, is criticizing the earlier schools. Saying, "No, brother, you are wrong. See what I say." What are they doing? If you look at the premise of structuralism, they are accepting everyone's words. They are not rejecting them. And they are also accepting their individual identity, whether it is voluntarism, or functionalism, or diffusionism. They are acknowledging their contributions, their theories. So, this is a good thing about their work. What do they believe? That everything has a structural aspect. That is, a structural basis. So, what is their aim? They say that everything you see in society is constructed in your mind. And everything is like a social construct. We can deal with this and explain it with very good examples. We often use examples of media, what you see in today's media, prime time shows. It is used in your books, stories. All these things are used to explain. So, it is broken down into themes, made into columns, and explained. But my own experience, which students relate to more, is what? It is today's media, or how media, using power around social construction, the game play between power and media, how it is pushing society towards the dimension of social construction, or giving you projections, preparing templates, so that you only work on them. Your mind will keep working on all these things. So, it is talking about all those things. And between all these things and the post-modernism we saw at the end, there is a lot of relation. And the example fits very well to discuss it. It takes almost 20 minutes to discuss it. So, their point is that everything is inside your mind. The mind constructs everything. Language is the structure of everything. That is why you saw similarity in language, in the syntax of language. The phonemes, the units of phonetics, you see there, there is a relationship between them. And it is universal worldwide. And similarly, there must be some structure operating in the human mind. When you break it down and look at it. This is what they are saying. Our main idea, our purpose is to enable the human mind, that is, to demystify it, to open it up, to understand it. Because everything is your social or mental, mental construction, structured inside your mind. They say structuralism and functionalism, like function, because it is around function. The same thing is being talked about everywhere. The talk is about "what" and "which form." Both are there. It's just that the focal point is different. One, the function of needs, is focusing on needs. And structuralism is focusing on structure. But both acknowledge functionalism. That everything has a function, both are common points. What is the main idea here? This school is a product of the mind. All the things you see worldwide, different parts of culture, units, all those things, whether it is marriage, or religion. Many things can be said about religion. All these are in your mind. That's what it says, it is a product of the mind. So, we have to understand how the mind is structured, how it is shaped. If you understand that, then you will easily understand all these things in society, different components, and cultural traits, units, and patterns, which are giving birth to cultural complexes. This was our school of structuralism. These are the four major schools you see. After this, there are many schools, and you will see many critics of them, and discussions will happen separately. Alright. Next, I will talk about. We talked about the evolutionary school at the beginning. It is divided into two parts. Two parts are: first, classical; second, single-line evolution. They are talking about evolution, but everyone is criticizing it. They are criticizing it. If you talk about Morgan, in live classes, we tell you about many people, and even about Malinowski, we don't have time to tell you 15% here. Malinowski also needs to be seen and understood in great depth, and to see him. So, there are critics there too, and your diffusionists are also criticizing the work of evolutionism or unilinear evolution. So, to correct that, another evolutionary school comes, which is looking at things in a modern way. And what is the name of that school? Neo-evolutionism. It focuses on a particular theory. What is that theory? It is called the parabolic curve theory. Or parabolic curve theory, it is also called in many places. You know parabola, right? There is a circle, and this is it. So, you see a parabola shape, a curve shape. That here was animism, meaning people believed in spirits, souls. Then at some point, perhaps here came naturalism. They started worshipping nature, doing Aarti of the Ganges, worshipping Tulsi, and showing respect to the Himalayas. They saw the sun and made it a sun god. In what sense do you talk about everything? So, their worship starts. Cow worship starts. Then magical practices and all these things come. So, the concept of totemism comes. And finally, you see that there are two final stages. There are many stages in between too, and we don't have time. So, one is polytheism. It is looking here. The second stage here is this. And the final third stage, you see here, is C. That is, from these stages.

The Gurjar's practice has arrived here, and finally, here they will explain and elaborate. First, you look. The theory says, according to the parabolic curve theory, a social institution is saying that a cultural pattern or cultural trait of something, whatever you understand it to be, understand it as a myth, understand it as religion, understand a part of religion, right? There are many things in religion. That thing is born in a particular form A, into another form, meaning form B. Now, here comes its structure, it has changed. The direction also, you are seeing here, from here to here, the direction has also changed. There are many changes in it, and finally, it comes back into the same form in which it was before. But now its function and structure have changed here. Now you are seeing it move again to the original form with new developments. You see, if you look at the first stage in society, in different things, there was common ownership of property. When there were tribes, we often say there is a "we" feeling among them. In our society, what is the "we" feeling? From "we," another thing might have come to your mind, which is also our code and slice, which you can use to come to any study. That course is: maximum discount as a slice, meaning that life. Similarly, you see that the bond that exists among us, a similar bond you are seeing among tribals or primitive societies. There is a lot of connection, people feel connected to each other, talk about brotherhood, there is a feeling among them, right? So there you see common ownership. Economic means are not developed, property and all these things are commonly owned. So everyone is using a particular resource. It's not like your land, my land, this is yours, this is mine. In this way, common ownership of property is seen. Individual ownership develops. Land is being registered, saying this particular land is mine, okay? Here I have got it demarcated, right? I have given its token here. My property, mine, this, mine, everything comes to "me, me, myself." I mean, it comes to "me, myself." And finally, you are seeing that the third stage, what are you seeing? The society is again developing towards common ownership. If you haven't understood this example, you will understand it 100% with the next example. Because if your GS is a bit strong, you will understand this too. Let's take you to an easier one, because that will take a little more of our time. It's better to give you an easy example. First, people didn't have clothes, right? They didn't have clothes to wear, and people didn't have the understanding of tools, technology, fabric, all these things, the understanding of designing clothes. People lived without clothes. First, they started using tree leaves, then animal skins. Time difference. Things. And finally, you reach the stage where the body is covered. With clothes, it comes. In modern society, people wear clothes completely covering the body. When you go to royal society, 15th-16th century, completely covered in clothes from top to bottom, no part of the skin is visible. But in modern society, you are seeing movement. Now everyone is wearing jeans. Boys are wearing jeans. Even in boys' jeans, you will see it in a torn way, something is cut here, something is cut there. Even girls' dresses are seen. There it is moving towards a new concept, which is short. I think some case happened in Delhi Metro. I think I was just reading one article. Coverage is also happening on TV, on news channels, I think. So you see all those things. So we have society moving towards beauty. This is what they talked about. First, you were at some stage, then you came to another stage, the form changed, the direction changed, you started wearing clothes, and then you came back to that thing. You are going towards nutrition. You will wear minimum clothes. If your perspective is different, and the regional reason, the rationale behind it is different. There it was your deficiency or shortage, compulsion. Here it has become your fashion. Okay? So its form has changed, its structure has changed, and its function has changed. There were no clothes, so there was nothing. Here the function is that you have to signify your fashion, that it is my fashion statement. To tell people that, you are going towards the medium. A third thing, which we just told you. In the first stage, you see sexual promiscuity. There was no rule about who would become a partner with whom, who would become a mate. Because of this, fights often happened, right? Regarding social control. Even in animals, you see that the dominant member has mating rights, and he is mating with many females. Similarly, in early society, you see it. There are no rules, no regulations. Later, you see that everything here, the concept of monogamy, is connected to different statuses. Polygamy also comes, many things come in groups. Finally, you reach monogamy, which develops the concept of marriage. And now you are seeing that society is going back towards it, right? It is being discussed. That now this is a modern concept. Relationships with someone else, meaning you have such relationships with someone else, even this thing is being justified, right? So that thing is being told as part of modern thinking in a modern way. We are not telling you here whether it is right or wrong. It is up to your personal judgment. It is up to you what you want to see in the legal framework. We are telling you the anthropological framework here, how your movement is seen there. Living marriage is being talked about. The regularization or normalization of extramarital affairs is being talked about. So you see all these things. So new evolution is this. I think this part is also clear to you. Next is Cultural Materialism. The person associated with Cultural Materialism, his name is Marvin. We will not say "his," we will take his name with respect. So he gives a theory. The name of the guru is Marvin Harris. And he has a series of works from '68 to '71. Works are published between 1968 and 1971. Among them, an important work published in '68, the first edition, which is "The Rise of Anthropological Theory." So in that, he talks about Cultural Materialism. What does he say? He explains things in material terms. What is he saying? That when you see something changing within culture, where is that change coming from? The reason for the change in culture is the change in material life. That is, material culture. Material culture, what is it? I am seeing the board here, the screen is visible. This is material. This has become technology, that you can get education in offline mode. So these kinds of things are seen. These screens, boards, development of such things. And these were there before, and these things became common. Earlier, in restricted times, these became very common on a large scale. So you see this. So what happened? Your material came. These boards, your tools, your technology. So this brings a change in culture. What happens? The culture of offline education, education is also a part of culture. So the culture of offline education has shifted to online education. That is, the change that has come in material culture is because of something else. The change that has come in material because of that, it brings a change in culture. I hope it's clear. A very good example came to my mind today, and I thought, how can I explain it to you better? So that's what Marvin Harris is saying. If there is a change in material culture, then you will see changes in your individual cultures. When there is a change in tools and technology, in the mode of production, then culture also evolves accordingly. So they give priority to culture. Structure. This thing is completely against structure. Structure, in a way, is prioritizing things at the cognitive level, the structure of the mind, at the level of the mind. But this is prioritizing the material. In simple terms, if you say, it doesn't apply exactly, but if you say, if it focuses on the spiritual world or the cognitive world, then this is on the material world. It tells the primacy of material, its privacy, its importance. So you say here, it was published in 1968. What is its background? It was first of all a reaction against cultural relativism, idealism, structuralism. That is, against structuralism, against those who talk about ideal things, and relativism, meaning, see anything from its own perspective. Society sees it from its own perspective. This is what they say. We have also covered this before. In the previous video, in the Social Cultural Methodology Marathon 3R, you might have read it, or in the series we covered, we also covered it on YouTube. So if I go into explaining relativism, it will take more time. You should know what relativism is. It also works against relativism. Now, what is its premise or aim? Its aim is to create a pan-human science of society of man, whose findings can be accepted on logical evidence grounds, by the pan-human community. This is its aim. To create such a thing, such a society or science, a theory, a work. Which is applicable at the pan-human community level. Now, to explain his theory, he divides things into three levels, or you can say, he divides his entire social cultural system into infrastructure, structure, and superstructure. All material things come under infrastructure. For example, food, shelter, clothing, these are all things. So these are infrastructure. Tools and technology, means of production, method of technology and production level. Now, you are seeing all these things. At the level you are organizing, at the structural level, that thing is divided into two parts. First, domestic economic level. Second, political economic level. In the domestic economic level, your family comes. Along with the family, you get other things. What are those things doing? You can see them connected with the things here at the infrastructure level. For example, if you have the concept of shelter here, then you can connect it with the family. If you have the concept of wood, you can connect it with the family. Many things are related to each other. And thirdly, what does he keep? The cognitive, the philosophical. Thoughtful things are kept there. So philosophy, art, music, religion, all these things come at the superstructure level. Religion, etc., come here. So both structure and superstructure, which are here, are developing on infrastructure. That is, the material or basic component. So if there is any change in that, there will be a change in these. And if there is a change in these, it means the cultural system or cultural complex has changed. You are seeing religion here. Within this, your kinship, family, everything is part of your culture. Institutions, associations. So if there is a change in infrastructure, then it will affect all these things. To understand this, one way we have already told you, by giving you a live example. Another example that they used in their work is the holy structure of India, the example of Mother Cow. They use it in their work. They say that in India, it is not done, like cow fighting, it is not considered wrong, because it has always been a subject of their devotion. But not only because of that, but because it has had an economic importance. At a time when there was a shortage of resources in society, they were seeing the cow as a material necessity. You are seeing it as part of the infrastructure. You are also making your houses with cow dung. Right? You are also making your stoves with it. You are also eating milk products from it. So it is also helping in your shelter. Because in rural areas, houses are often covered with cow dung, used as polishing. You are consuming cow products. So what is happening there? When you are consuming products, you are getting food. You are using it in agriculture. So in this way, it is regulating the aspects of your life, your survival. That's why you are seeing it. You are saying that a taboo has come on the cow, and that taboo is part of your religion, that is, part of your superstructure. That is, there has been a change in your infrastructure. There were material needs: food, clothing, shelter. From which you are saying that you are also getting food from it. And you are saying that it is helping you in agriculture in an economic way. And you are talking about how you are using it in your shelter, using it for polishing, using it as a stove. So it is helping you at the infrastructure level in all these things. That's why a belief has come among people that it should be protected. An emotional intimacy has developed with it. And a taboo has come, or a regulation has come, that cow fighting will not happen. It has been made protected and sacred. This is the example of cultural materialism. After this, if we talk about it, among which cultural materialism is done. Next are Symbolic and Interpretive Theories. What do Symbolic and Interpretive Theories say? How is culture governed? And what is the importance of symbols? They are emphasizing that. The anthropologists associated with this, we can use it here. The school associated with this is Symbolic and Interpretive. It is connected to the cultural aspect, cultural background. And symbols, without saying, are the latent things within culture, the structural things that are expressed indirectly. For example, you see the festival of Dussehra, and the program of burning Ravana is going on. This is a very good example to understand the talk of this school. There, you are not just burning Ravana every year through that practice. By burning it, you are symbolically representing the victory of goodness over evil, right? Or you are recreating the story, reinforcing it in society. Its cultural aspect, the message behind it, an idea hidden within it, is not just empty talk. Culture. In balance, there is work. In many places, you see roosters being fought, birds being fought. So there they say that many resources are connected to their social status in their own way. So they are describing this thing within thick description. Within thick description, they are describing the cockfight. They say that before fighting the roosters, they are fed well. Sometimes, even if a person doesn't pay much attention to his food, he feeds the roosters well, because they will symbolically represent their status. When the fight happens. They are properly groomed. Their nails are properly done. Adornment is done. And after doing all this, when they become completely healthy, they are made to fight with the other group, meaning, the rooster you are talking about. And blood is applied to their nails. Right? In many places, this has been banned. So there, this is part of their culture. So when they are fighting each other, one will definitely get blood on the other, on the neck, somehow. Then death will occur. So the one who wins will be victorious. And this victory, this victory of the rooster, is not just a victory in a game. What is this victory? It is symbolically representing the status of the human being, who was fighting, whose roosters are fighting. The one who wins will have an elite status, and the one who loses will be completely demoralized. That's why all this preparation is seen there. And they explain this in the concept of deep play. The concept of thick description is Gilbert Trial's construction. So they are using other concepts for these kinds of things, but they are using interpretation. They give the concept of liminality. It's a very good concept. And they are saying many other things, which of course you will read when you join our live batches, which are starting from April 21st, from 1:00 PM onwards. Along with comprehensive live batches, series.

Also included, you are getting the 15 triple nine, but only when you use the code "US LIVE". So this thing is done. Or, interpretively, the next thing we talk about, which you are seeing, that is cognitive. I think here, the cognitive school of theories and thought, with that, there are two people. One is your Taylor. These are not those Taylors who were with evolution. And the second is Kuhlman. So they say that things are cognitive, meaning at the mental level, how you think about it, understand it, that matters a lot. Everything inside your mind is constructed. It is a constructed reality, okay? You will find that many of its domains are similar to structure, but their entire premise is different. And for example, how a cognitive world is decided, it tells you how things can be structured in its mind. And generally, you will say, "Yes sir, there is water in this." But if I take out chalk from this and show it to you, you will laugh. Then you will know that okay, chalk is kept in this bottle. But if another person immediately enters the room, opens the door and enters the studio, and I ask you, "Okay, tell me, what will that person who has come answer if I ask them the same question?" You know that chalk is kept inside this, but still you will say that the person in front will say that there is water inside because they don't know that chalk is inside. Okay? So on what basis did you do this? Things are designed at the cognitive level. You try to understand and see the construction inside other people's minds. Similarly, all different concepts, in different societies, are at different mental levels. The concept of many societies' cultures is different. The concept of day and night is different. In the culture of many societies, this is a very prominent thing, right? Modern society takes many things for granted. This screen, you will call it this. Why will you call it this? Where did it say? There is no rule. Whatever you call anything, you call it that. Why do you call this a marker? Why do you call it a stylus? Why do you call a mobile a mobile? If it is red, why do you call it red? If it is green, why do you call it green? This is a structure at your cognitive level. You have ingrained these things in your mind. It might be influenced by some paradise or by following someone. In many such societies, they might call green red. They have also given an example of this in conferences. They have also given an example of this in the concept of day and night. In many places, there is no concept of day. In day and night, there is no concept of either. For them, it is the entire time. So you see variations in time, variations in color, variations in concepts. All these things are cognitive. This is cognitive theory. The last one you have is post-mortem. It is a very big part of your Unit Six, or in general, anthropological theories and thoughts. What does post-mortem say? That all these things are there, they are a myth, they are not real, and political power decides what you will think and what you will do. For example, you see in your political domain, how things were told to you after India's independence. Okay? At a time when the country becomes independent, the reconstruction of the Somnath Temple is a big issue. The President, Vice President, many people, the Home Minister of the country, it is a very big thing. You move a little forward in time, and debates start on the Hindu Code Bill. The structure of the Hindu Code Bill, the ban on vehicles there, and many such practices are seen there where many people are rioting, right? One particular wing, and the other wing, are supporting it. And Ambedkar, he resigns from the Congress portfolio in a way because there is a delay in implementing this thing, the Hindu Code Bill. So Nehru says, "You are the Prime Minister, you can do it." But he says, "We have to take everyone along. This criticism that is happening, we have to address it and then do it. It's not that I am the Prime Minister, I can do anything. I have enough majority." He is not in full majority, and that is not the right way in democracy. Okay? But Mr. Ambedkar disagrees with this in a way. He leaves. He converts to Buddhism. He also dies around '56. And a few months later, you see that around that time, the Hindu Code Bill is completely passed. There are many laws within the Hindu Code Bill, okay? There are laws of inheritance, you also see regulations for marriage. They happen. So that negative trend was going on. Slowly, the concept of temples, the Ayodhya movement, rises. The Ayodhya movement, Ram Mandir, all these things were happening there. Then the reservation movement came. And everything that is happening in front of you, the issue of equality, the issue of politics, the issue of NRC. So many people are not related to it, it will not affect them. But your consciousness, all those things are structured. You are talking about it everywhere. You go to a tea stall, anywhere, in every nook and corner, your entire society is seen talking about this one thing. IPL is coming, so everyone will talk about IPL. Everything related to IPL is happening. All the people started making videos on IPL. So why does all this happen? Because they say, and I am not saying this, I am just giving you examples from them. This post-mortem school says that political powers are governing this. This post-mortem school, its prominent name is Michael Foucault, we have mentioned that. All these theories, no theory can be completely true, and no theory can be more correct than another theory. So within this, there are two factions. One is the skeptic, who denies every theory and says demolish all theories. The other is the active one. So what do they say? They say theories are wrong, they also agree, and they talk about replacing or transforming them. And the method they use, how will you remove it? You call it deconstruction. How was something made? Only by breaking it and looking at it will you know how it was constructed. So this basically, the school of post-modernism is against science, against structuralism, against modernity. They deny accepting all these theories of grand narratives, and they believe in them. The powers that rule you, that regulate you, political powers do not just mean governments. Many powers are hidden. In many places, capital power, even if it looks like a structure, is ruling, but all those rules and all those laws that are being made, capitalists are making them. You see theories within them. There are many common points visible in the work of post-modernism. We have covered it here. Within 100 minutes, between 90 minutes and 100 minutes, all your theories have been covered here. And this was all about Unit Six and a major part of the first paper. And I hope to see you in the next video. We will come with another set of particular work in this, and theories. We will pick up a part, tribal Indian archaeology, physical, and finish it in a particular theme, in a flow, from beginning to end, so that your revision journey becomes easy. I am reminding you again that for anything related to this, any content you need, you can come to Telegram. If you want to enroll in any course, study, you will get it at a maximum discount when you use US LIVE. And if you have any queries, want to ask me questions, need any information, you can get it addressed on our Instagram page, sapiensworld.com, sapiens_homo_sapiens. You can go there and get your queries addressed. Also, announcing that our batches are starting on April 24th. It is a comprehensive deal. Here you will get live classes, and test series are also attached. If you use US LIVE, you will get it at 1599, meaning at the maximum possible discount. And I hope to see maximum of you in the live classes. So we are using this, and there is still some deficiency, I also feel like telling you, "Oh, I should have told you a little more." You have to study 400 hours of material in 14 hours, so how much is left out? So that part will be completed there. Handholding will be done completely. You will get live lectures, full recorded videos will be provided, and along with that, lecture notes, PDFs, everything will be delivered there with this course. So join us in this journey. And for the others, for all the channel audience, we will continue the marathon series. Who is the champion of 100 meters, 200 meters in the world? If I ask you who is your favorite, who is your favorite? Some people will lean towards Black, some towards Usain Bolt. Maybe someone else will name a third player, an athlete. So up to 100-200 meters, all that is accepted. But for you, the efforts we are making here, what you are seeing on the board, on the screen behind, after that, if someone asks you who is the marathon champion, then your answer should be only one, and that should be at the end. And when will that be? You can tell us in the comment section. Who is the marathon champion? But we often say here that for you, we are making different efforts. We talk about the number series, some general interesting videos. Recently, we also did a poll. What do you like? What kind of videos should we bring for you daily? What kind of videos do you want most frequently? And we saw the comment section was very divided. The poll results were very divided. From morning, I have been looking at it. But late at night, when I last saw it, it was very divided. It was not going entirely in one direction. We often talk here that your batches are starting from April 25th. And in the batches, we talk about complete nutrition. The nutritional part, the in-depth understanding of the subject, and the knowledge that is necessary to build to reach the door of selection, to see your name in the merit list. All that part will be covered from April 1st. With very little handholding. There are only four or five days left, I think, four days. It is about to start. But before that, the learning you should get, the taste, the flavor that we should convey to you, the cream of it, we are conveying through this marathon. And we started this marathon a few days ago. Two or three lectures, I think, have reached you. And we promised that we would deliver the entire syllabus in a summarized form within 14 hours, so that its benefit will be that your revision will become quite easy. Those handwritten notes that you will get in the batches when you join us on April 21st, when you combine those 100 notes with this revision, with this 14-hour coverage that we are bringing for you, then trust me, you will not find better revision material anywhere else. And that is why we are working hard on this. And we have two batches starting. We have to do a lot of preparation on the content front, and how to prepare, prepare PPTs, look at the material, sit with the editing team, so that if any new knowledge comes, any new research comes, we can add it. We can prepare the material in a comprehensive way. But despite that, we are running the number series and your 14-hour marathon as well. And everything is going on time so far, as per our promises, as per the scheduling. Everything is going on. It looks very vibrant, doesn't it? Like Holi, the whole atmosphere looks vibrant on the board. Why have you chosen such a vibrant background? We have chosen a vibrant background because we are going to celebrate India today in this video. Celebrate what? Because we are going to cover the part of Indian College today, yes, Indian Anthropology in 90 minutes. Without the clock, it should be finished. In a time frame of 90 minutes, of course, 5-7 minutes more or less is very good. If it's more, then in fact, it's very good. But we will try to finish this thing from our side within those 90 minutes. That's why India's diversity, India's culture is very diverse, you can say there is a plethora of variety in it. The form of celebration is seen in it. There is energy. And to celebrate that, we have chosen this kind of background. So, before starting, I had a question for all of you recently on Telegram. And the question was, when is Civil Services Day celebrated? You had options: April 19th, 21st, 20th, 23rd. And many people chose 23rd. I don't know why everyone chose 23rd. The correct answer was April 21st. Now let's start. Our Indian Anthropology marathon within 90 minutes. Look at the clock's hands, and let's try to finish it completely in 90 minutes. And tell us later if we did it in 90 minutes or not. You can tell us in the comment section. And how you liked it, you can also share your opinion with us. So the first unit you see within Indian Anthropology is Unit 2. That is talking about the demographic profile of India. We are not going to stress much on this. Why? Because we are teaching you tribal anthropology. So, the first unit there, you talked about bio-genetic variability, linguistic classification, and tribal classification from an economic point of view. We saw that classification comprehensively. And we saw the work of three major famous people. You tell us who they are. Of course, there are many people. Guest based classification is seen. Haddon's classification is seen. Hutton has said his things about who are the earlier people seen in India. Along with that, the work of other anthropologists or other classifiers is seen there. But we said three works are very prominent, very famous, and you have to remember them. Among them, the first work is by one of the Census Commissioners, Herbert Hope Risley, which he gave in 1915. You must have seen the classification. He divided it into 7 groups. That's why its importance increased early. After that, we see the most popular classification, that of B.S. Guha. And that comes in '37, 10 years before independence. And what was special about it? The special thing about it was that the person who gave that classification, Mr. Guha, if I am not wrong, his full name is Biraj Shankar Guha, you can check it once. And the special thing about him was that he held a big post. What was the post? He was the first incumbent, or you can say, the first person to hold the responsibility as Director of the Anthropological Survey of India. When it was just opened in 1945, the Anthropological Survey of India, which you call ASI. Just like in history, you have heard the name of John Marshall. You have read the works of both these people. Please don't get confused, so we are calling it ASI. Anthropological Survey of India. He took the helm. And SI, he was its first director. That's why his work became very popular. The third work is the most accepted because it is the most scientific. The evidence is most in it. That is S.S. Sarkar's work, which you see coming around 1961. In fact, during Nehru's time, this work is seen coming around 1961. It was published around 1961. So all those things, when you read the demographic profile of India, there is no separate classification. The work you see on the front of tribal classification is also applicable to general Indian classification, classification of people. And this is even

Available in your Art or Color portion, in the Art and Color portion of GS1, you are looking at India's racial classification or ethnic classification, and also linguistic classification. So, in the language chapter, if you pick up Nitin Singhania or any other standard book, that portion is the same. It deals with these very buttons. So again, what we saw there in Tribal Anthropology, you go and refer to it, or we have sent you a classification in our group for D-Positive, you can also prefer that. That is dealing with that particular thing only. When you talk about ethnic, different groups come there. Okay. You see Lapinoids, you see Nordics. In this way, how is it done by Guha? You see Skulls to DVDs, you see Audions. So these are all classifications, different people have given different ones. For example, S.S. Sarkar's is a bit different. He has done basic divisions based on head shape, on head morphology. For example, he divides different groups into Dolichocephals, Mesocephals, and Brachycephals. We might have also told you its mnemonics, which were AIMM and IMF, International Monetary Fund. You do this, within which he has explained. Within this, you see Mundari speakers, Indo-Iranians, Australoids, and then you talk about the icons of Windows, or you talk about the North-Eastern group. This is the entire classification, which is the most accepted. Although, if they don't ask you to ask for the most accepted, you can freely quote any of the three. But in S.S. Sarkar, you should focus more. If it has come in detail, you can mention all three and discuss one of them, which is the most accepted, in the answer to the question paper. Alright. So you see that this is ethnic classification. We also talked about linguistics, that based on languages, you can divide into different regions. The languages of Central India, the languages of South India, they are grouped together. Sometimes they are slightly separated, in which the Gondi language, all these languages of the tribal belt, of Central and Central-Eastern India, in a tribal sense, you see Gondi language, you see Santhali. Then when you come to the South, they fall under the bracket of Dravidian languages. Tulu, Telugu, Malayalam, Kannada, all these you see under the bracket of South or Dravidian languages. If I go to the East, there you have Austroasiatic languages, okay, which you count in the Mundari belt, called the Munda family. And you count the remaining languages of the Northeast. If you cut East India, you are specifically dealing with the Northeast. So the Sino-Tibetan language family, within that, many regional languages come. Because, because many languages are spoken in Meghalaya, many languages spoken in between the people. If you go to the North, you get the Indo-Aryan group. Okay. So in this way, India also has language classification, which we dealt with in the tribal part last. So that is applicable here also. In this very thing, you have been asked to describe the distribution of the Indian population, on an ethnic basis. You are seeing the same thing. And factors influencing the structure and growth of the Indian population, or Indian society, because the paper is about Indian society. So here you see that if you have to study the distribution, in a general global sense, around 1950, after World War II, the debate on race, the term race, was very prominent. It had become very prominent, and the majority of anthropologists, or if it is not wrong to say, 99% or 98% of anthropologists, were completely rejecting the concept of race, the myth of race, dividing people on the lines of superiority and inferiority on a racial basis. They were publishing papers and books with different evidence, different arguments, and proving through research that how wrong it is. They even said that the term ethnic group should be used for this, completely remove the term race because it is such a derogatory term. Yet, in common sense, you see that racial classification is still used today. But when talking about race, how do you classify human groups on a certain basis? A group, a genus, a group. You are studying class, order, infraorder, family, superfamily, at the level of subspecies, you can count the phenomenon of race. We do not count or believe in any socio-cultural or biological basis for it. A human is not better or worse than another on any basis. So we completely ignore this. Especially for an anthropologist. Someone else might talk about it, historians can talk about it, other people can talk about it. But for us, especially the term race, especially. So we use it just to tell you, to read, and to familiarize you with how this thing used to work. Otherwise, we don't even use it during lectures. So you see that it was discussed in general groups worldwide. The people you see in the Northern Plains, or talk about the Western world, the population there, a major part of America, and you add a part of Europe, they are called Caucasoids. We have talked about the three major races many times: Caucasoid, and Negroid. So the one you see in the African region, you usually see it as a Negroid race because the elements of Negroidism are prominent among them. They have thick lips, the nose will be quite bulky and broad, ears will be large, they are dolichocephalic, height is tall. Many such features are common among them. Different, the shape of their nose is different, they have prominent lips and broad noses. You also see many variations in fingerprints. We study all this in detail in Paper One under Physical Anthropology, in the chapter on race. So here we just need to see the distribution in the form of classification.

So, you see broader head shapes, meaning what you call brachycephalic condition. So these kinds of things are used to mark different groups. So if you compare India with the major world races, you will see this entire pink portion. The word is also clear, I think. All four major groups. Earlier, only these three were counted. Let's say here, Caucasoid, Negroid, these are the three major races of the world. But recently, the terminology or classification of Proto-Australoid or Australoid has also become important, significant, and is being used everywhere. When you describe the population of India, then in the Northern and Western plains, most of the population's prominent areas, connected areas with fertile land, you usually find a group. The nature of people is Caucasoid. Or if you consider the Indian classification given in the Indian context, then you are calling this Indo-Aryan classification. This is why we are telling you about the distribution. Next, you see this entire peninsular region, the major peninsular region you see here. That was less prone to external stabilization. You see more here. So here you see this color Proto-Australoid. Instead of personal assistants, the North-Eastern region. North-Eastern region, where you have well-marked Mongoloid features, which we just talked about. Like the Chinese population. So similar physical forms are common among the population of the Northeast. You see that there is also a connection with Myanmar and other places. The connection of this region is well-marked. So you can count similarities or make out similarities on a common physical form or biological basis, or based on characteristics. Yes, you see it here. This is what you call the population of India. They were also talking about the Negroid element. Even in the chapter on race in Paper One, you are also told about where the Negroid element is found in the Indian population. Different things have been discussed. For example, B.S. Guha, whose classification we discussed, counts that you see Negroid elements. If you go to the Andamans, in South India, you see the Kadar population, the Arayan population, the Paniyan population. Among them, they are seeing Negroid elements. S.S. Sarkar denies it, saying that you have some hair forms, free hair loss, and all these hair forms. Based on that, you got a bit confused. And the group you see there is what? It is Australoid or Proto-Australoid, not Negroid. So the Negroid element is not shown on this map because whoever designed it did not believe so. But some people, some anthropologists, scholars, consider it. Especially some tribes of Andaman and Nicobar, and some tribes of South India, they have Negroid elements among them. So if you talk about the general distribution of changes, first, you have been asked here about structure and growth. You also have to tell about the factors influencing it, what changes you are seeing. So here, first, you study the structure of Indian society. In the lower part, we have to study it, so discussing it here will be overlapping. We will study the same thing twice. You will see both things later. So we postpone it here. We will look at it when this part comes later. We will tell you that yes, you can relate it to this unit as well. The next unit is 3.1, which is quite important from the perspective of Indian Anthropology. If you are studying Indian society, then you should know its structure, its functions, and its major elements. So what are the major elements here? You see what the traditional system is. The traditional system of Indian society has many major things. What are they? First thing, there is the Varna model. Next, there is talk about Ashrama Dharma. The third thing you are seeing there is the philosophy of Purusharthas and the talk of Dharma, which people call Karma and Dharma. When you spell it in English or pronounce it, these are all. You can also count India's basic Jajmani system. Although it is related to the Varna system, and many people integrate it. And how is the structure and agriculture? You see some structure. This entire phenomenon of modernity came much later. Colonies came, railways, post offices, banking systems came. A bureaucracy is established with a well-marked system. There is qualification, there is pan-Indianization, things are happening. So all these things came much later. And before they came, there was a general nature of traditional Indian society. It was like this, and agricultural practice, the economy, you did not see the industrial revolution here. You were seeing an agrarian structure. You were seeing the Jajmani system. There is Varna system, Ashrama, Purushartha, Moksha, Karma, Dharma, and many other things. We will deal with this too. But these are the major elements of Indian society that you need to see. Also, if you say, it might also include the joint family system. What is the family system like? It used to be a joint family system. So this was like a major structure of Indian society, or traditional Indian society. In Indian society, many elements come. The past, the present, the contemporary, and the traditional. So we are talking about the traditional here, as it used to be. There is also a unit above this, we will study it in that unit. So you see here, it is divided into different headers. Varna and Ashrama are studied together, which is a structure. It tells about the structure of Indian society. You see that from ancient times, the social structure of India, the traditional society, is based on the hereditary principle. Based on the system, meaning here, it is indicating the Varna system, that it is a hereditary, structural, hereditary nature. You see that one group is above another, and you see another below it. So in a sequential manner, 1, 2, 3, 4, ranked manner, Indian society and its various groups are arranged. Members are divided into caste groups, due to the presence of caste groups. Traditional occupation is also a characteristic of the Varna or caste system. The actions of Indian individuals in ancient Indian society were also seen. Inherently structured on a normative ideological and socio-cultural group factor. The normative structure consisted of Purush. So this paragraph is telling you about Indian society, the nature of traditional society that we just talked about, conveying the same thing.

First, what is seen here is your Varna Ashrama, or the Varna Ashrama system. When you talk about it, you see two elements joined together: one is Varna and the other is Ashrama. Basically, what is Varna first? The root word of Varna, scholars or linguists say, is from the word 'vri', which means to choose or to cover. Now, people attribute different meanings to it. Some people say that its meaning is associated with color. So Varna means, as it is said, it is written in the Puranas, 'Krishna Varna' or 'Shukla'. 'Shukla' is used for a fair complexion, and 'Krishna Varna', or what is called Krishna, is used for a darker complexion. It has other etymological meanings too, but this is one of the most accepted meanings. And the other word you must have heard is 'Shrama'. So Ashrama is basically used for a resting place. If you look at the literal meaning of Ashrama, it is usually used for a resting place. Even in earlier times, you see that the place where philosophers or learned individuals live is called Ashrama. And the word 'Shrama' means action or effort, more suitable for effort. So these are the etymological or literal meanings of all these words. So if you understand these, then you will find it easy to understand all the concepts. So what is written here is that Hindu society is divided into two coordinated systems of social organization. What is the nature of these two systems? They are systems of social organization. We covered this in about 3 hours, didn't we? In 180 minutes. So if you go there, you will find social organization. Within this, you are talking about various domains of associations, institutions, and the relationships between them. You will get to know all that. So if you don't know about social organization and its variations yet, you can watch that video. But for now, let's break the sequence. It's not that you won't understand the concepts until you know social organization. Still, watch it later. You can note it down now. This is homework given by sir for later. So you will see these things in the structure of Indian society. So first, you know that it is divided into two parts. The first part is that the entire human life is divided into one to four stages, which are represented by the Ashrama system. What are they? You see Brahmacharya, Grihastha, Vanaprastha, and Sanyasa. We will also deal with this, what is its meaning, what is to be done in it, what are the expected behavioral norms and values associated with it. We will talk about all these things. And the second part is that the entire society is divided into segments or strata. That is Varna. So the stages are covered by Ashrama, and the strata are represented by Varna. So to organize and manage, to organize and manage for the sake of organization and management of the individual and society, these two schemes together are called the Varna Ashrama or Varna Ashrama Dharma system. What is their existence for? To coordinate and manage human actions, so that there is no conflict between them, how should his actions be, what should be his expected behavior, this should be clear in a person's mind, and when there is less conflict and less friction, then what happens in society? Anything, anything in society.

Remove the color, remove it. Friction reduces, right? When friction reduces, more efficiency is seen. So, to increase efficiency, to increase coordination, and to manage everything in a fruitful manner, the system is seen as part of the ancient Indian social system. Now, we talked about different stages. So here you are seeing that this entire chart that you are seeing, it explains all those things and along with that, it integrates the concepts of another school of Purusharth. So first, let us tell you here that this is what is called your Ashram. So it divides human life into four stages. First is Brahmacharya. What is Brahmacharya? It is that stage where you are watching this video, you are present. You are not the major purpose of your life is what? It is to obey the words of gurus and parents and to keep yourself busy in the process of learning, or to continue the process of learning. So here you are basically preparing for the future life. For the problems you are seeing, for the responsibilities that are coming your way, your nurturing or grooming is being done here. So that is the Brahmacharya stage. Along with all these stages, we have also connected the concept of 'Rin' (debt) which we will discuss in the upcoming lectures or upcoming slides when we talk about 'Rin'. We will tell you then. You must have understood Brahmacharya. There is nothing special about it. Although when we deal with it in live batches, there are many techniques within it, like what is the relevance of Brahmacharya, what are the objectives here, what is being done and what is not being done, right? Whose debts have to be repaid? So all those things are discussed in detail, which is of course not possible now because it is 400 hours, we are doing it in 14 hours, and a good portion of Indian Anthropology is being covered in 90 minutes. So, of course, you are getting the cream of the milk, the nutrition. From April 21st, our batches are available for you. Like Shah Rukh Khan stands, in that way, they are present for you there. The second stage you see, pay attention to the term, what is the stage and what is the second is the 'Sata' (state). So we are talking about the stage, so first is Brahmacharya, the second is Grihastha. The name Grihastha itself suggests 'Griha' (home), indicating domestic life. So here you enter and integrate into a domestic life, and along with that, your responsibilities increase. Those who were under Brahmacharya were dependent in a way on the Grihasthas. So when you come into Grihastha, you will also be dependent on other people or other classes or people of other stages. And it is not just your progress that you talk about, even your elders, when you grow up, when you are in Grihastha, you are accumulating wealth. The stage's indicator is character, that you are accumulating wealth and fulfilling the responsibilities towards other people. So one is that you are fulfilling all the needs of your children, their learning, their upbringing, you are funding everything. If you talk in a modern term. And the second is that the elderly people who are dependent on you, you have become elders, so your elders have become even older, they have grown very old. So their responsibility is also on your shoulders, their burden is also on you. Next, after Grihastha, comes Vanaprastha. This is the stage when a person slowly starts moving towards spiritual meaning. All their responsibilities are now over. They have accumulated wealth. Those who were in Brahmacharya, i.e., their children, they have also brought them up, completed their learning. Those who were their elders, their responsibilities towards them, right? Which you call Pitr-Rin and other things, they have also been dealt with, they have been repaid. Parents are also usually not there because you yourself are around the age of retirement. If you want to understand the current sense, although it is understood on the basis of traditional society in earlier lectures, but here if you want to understand in simple language, then here you are nearing retirement age. So your spiritual meaning starts increasing. You start liking worship a bit, right? And your children would have now got jobs, maybe even married. Right? You see in the 50s, when you are nearing retirement. So that is the thing, that here you are nearing retirement. So in the modern sense, when you talk about retirement, your traditional duties and responsibilities are retiring. So you have reached that stage. Your elders are no longer present there. Because obviously, if you are 50-60, your elders would have died out. They would have become immortal, they would not be alive. So you are saying that in Vanaprastha, you are reaching that stage. You start thinking about the rest of your life, about your religious duties. So first, the emphasis was on Karma. That I have to keep doing Karma. Although Dharma is considered central at every stage in Indian philosophy, so Dharma has been a necessity at every stage. But here, that Dharma takes prominence over Karma. Right? Dharma was central everywhere. Karma was in the form of a principal. At this stage, Karma goes down a lot compared to Dharma, and Dharma starts coming into prominence. You start talking about rights, and you are preparing for Sanyasa or Moksha. You are talking about Moksha. And here, as soon as you retire from all duties, leave everything, that is Sanyasa. Whatever worldly possessions you are talking about, you retire from them at this time and leave them, and you go prepared for complete devotion or preparation for Moksha. So you see the Sanyasa stage. If you want to understand it from the story of the Mahabharata, then you are seeing how, if you go into the backdrop, the story of Shantanu is going on. Bhishma is learning various skills. Within the group, Brihaspati is also learning, and along with that, he has learned from Parashurama and many others for this very reason. That is why he is called one of the most excellent warriors. Right? The second thing you are talking about is the Pandavas. Look at their father first, Pandu, Dhritarashtra. Their learning is happening. And after that, their sons, the Pandavas and Kauravas, their learning also happened. All of them are going through Brahmacharya. Then when Pandu, i.e., the father of Pandu, the father of the Kauravas, Dhritarashtra, grow up, they somehow take over the kingdom, manage their responsibilities, get married. That is Grihastha Ashram. They are ready to retire. So there, what are you seeing? The major decision is being taken by whom? Their son, Duryodhana. So you see that I think in Vanaprastha also, you see that. In Shanti Parva, in fact, you see that they are taking a proposal, that we can settle this matter in this way. But even then, they are not accepting those things. So they refuse. They say, we will not give you five villages, let alone. First, there was talk of a kingdom. From the kingdom, they say, okay, give five villages. They are not even giving five villages. So they say, okay, finally, can you give us such a small piece of land that can be measured with a finger, or some such settlement statement is used. That even that small land, which you can use, on which a person can stand, I am not ready to give that much land. So at that stage, you are seeing that the Kauravas are taking their own decisions. Their parents, i.e., Dhritarashtra, are slowly, they are sitting on the major throne, but they do not have complete control over the decisions. You see that they are sometimes getting scared, sometimes doing something, but not taking a firm decision there. So from Vanaprastha, finally, you also see Sanyasa after the war. Right? There all the people, even Kunti, Gandhari, and Dhritarashtra, retire and leave for the forest. So you are seeing all these stages. You saw the complete discussion of all these stages. The second thing which is very central to the philosophical notation of Indian society is the Varna model. Here, we are talking about stages, meaning society is divided according to the nature of the people. Now, if you want to know about the Varna system, we have a demo class recorded here. I am writing DC here, don't consider it as Marvel DC. Our demo class is fully recorded. It is also on a trial and on caste. So there we have also dealt with the origin of caste, and along with that, your different aspects related to the Varna model, how its origin might have happened, what are its characteristics, what is its nature. We will also see here what are the main characteristics. So one is the origin theory, which is divine, that God created it. People call it the Purusha Sukta, it is considered within the classical theory. Right? That in the 10th mandala of the Rigveda, you see the mention of that Sukta. It is mentioned that from the different parts of the supreme deity or supreme being, humans, or you say castes, have originated. From the head portion, you see Brahmins, and further, from different parts, different castes have originated. So this is the divine or classical theory. Similarly, you also see the Gadh theory, the occupational theory. In that, you see the name of Denzil Pinto, the name of Jas Field. There is a racial theory, with which Majumdar is also associated, and Herbert Hope, who is giving your racial classification. So they are using their work there. The next thing that is very crucial, which you are seeing here, is what? Characteristics. Right? So the characteristics that are present here. We are not dealing with them within the Ashram because there is a whole unit on this, 3.2. We will deal with it when we come to it, so we will deal with it together. Why waste time separately? Because we have less time. Already the procedure is around 45 minutes. So half the time is gone, 50% is gone, 50% is left with us. So we are utilizing the 50% to cover the remaining parts. Coming back, it is finished. Now you are seeing how the Varna Ashram and the entire physical system, philosophical system of India. First, understand Purusharth. Male-female is not that. Man means human being. So Purusharth is made of two words. If you break it down, Purush means man, and Artha. Artha also has another term, another meaning. What is it? It is associated with wealth, associated with income, right? With capital, as you call it. You saw that in the Chanakya, then Kautilya, in the ancient Indian system, in the Maurya Empire. So it is not that Artha here. The meaning of Artha is meaning. So what is the meaning of Purush? That is, if a person is present here, has come into the world, what is their purpose, what is their aim? So here, we are talking about goals. So Purusharth is what? Purusharth refers to the goals and aims of life. Ashram is based on what moral? There must be some values, right? There must be morals that are governing. Otherwise, why would anyone follow anything? Sometimes you see, even in tribal or primitive societies, there is no Indian Penal Code there, there is no IPC, CrPC, all these things are not there. There is no judicial or written constitution there. So what do people follow? Even for marriage, you see that marriage is made between siblings. In Hindu society, generally, you see cousin marriage is forbidden. In South India, you see cross-cousin marriage is allowed, but there are many regulations on every marriage. So without any regularization, why would a person follow it, why would they accept it in a way, when there is a psycho-moral basis, some values are attached, some fear? So these kinds of things. So in Ashram, you are also adopting different responsibilities and duties. At the stage of Brahmacharya, you are only studying or learning or obeying the words. But when you come to the next stage, you are doing specific things. In Sanyasa, someone might say, why should I retire today? So you see, if you take the example of even Donald Trump, you are taking the example of Amitabh Bachchan, you can take the example. He is so old, so famous, but he is still working. So why would I retire? When I can work, I have so much money that you can augment your life, enhance your physical and mental capacities, and also maintain them. So why would you retire? This question will arise for you. So obviously, at that time, even now, people don't accept this easily. We are talking about this traditional system. And at that time, they used to accept it. Why? Because this Purusharth existed, that you should follow all the Ashrams, the rule of Varna in Varna Ashram, and the rule of Ashram. For that, there should be a moral, psychological, or value-based scheme. So that used to work. So here, talking about Purusharth. So here you are talking about these are the psycho-moral basis. Here you are talking about that the individual through society gets trained in the use of management of Purusharth for a long span of life. For life on this earth is the ultimate desire of a person, but the ultimate goal is deeper. So Purusharth also explains to you that the desire for immortality or a very long life is common in every society, not just in India. Wherever you go, you will see it. You will see it in every individual. But this scheme of Purusharth, through which it distracts you from distracting temptations or greed, it separates you from destruction through the mode of or through the concept of Moksha. Moksha is science. You will be integrated back with the Paramatma (Supreme Soul), which you are calling, and there you will attain ultimate pleasure. So all these things. Here, people also say that life is all about problems. Here there is sorrow, pain. Someone is not cracking UPSC, then they are attempting again. Even if they clear the attempt, you see there too. Somewhere there is political pressure, somewhere there is work pressure, there are many things you see. So no one is completely free from problems. Even if you talk about Ambani, their rank has also slipped. If they have slipped in rank, if they have surpassed Gautam Adani, then they have surpassed me. Right? You see this in Bollywood, sometimes Shah Rukh's movie is doing well, sometimes someone else's will. Aamir's, Salman's. So it is a race. So if you don't run in that race, that race continues. So it is talking about getting out of this race, finally achieving liberation, Moksha, so that the entire thing you are talking about, the fundamental pleasure, which can be obtained there, through merging with the Paramatma, you can get it. So these things are also seen here, along with various elements. Just like in the Ashram system, in Varna, you saw 4 Varnas. In Ashram, you also see. So in Purusharth also, you see [music] Dharma, Artha, Kama, Moksha. What do we do? So that you get confused. What is Dharma? It is moral guidance. That is why we say, in Purusharth, what is most central? It is the primacy of Dharma, its privacy is being talked about. Next, Artha. You have to sustain life, so you have to have some mode through which you can run your livelihood. Artha comes into play there. Right? And Artha is very major at a certain time. If you relate it to the Ashram system, then when you are in Grihastha Ashram, we said Artha is primary. The primacy of things changes at different stages. Although Dharma is central at every stage, but the primacy keeps changing. So at the stage of Grihastha, Artha is primary. Desire is being talked about here. Right? So these are the four elements when you are talking about Purusharth. You have seen these four elements. Talking about Karma, because what you saw there, Dharma, Artha, Moksha.

In the unit, I will tell you about Karma, about the great Karma. What is Karma? Karma is your actions. Here, I think, it is written here or not, Karma means the action and the consequences of the action. The action you are taking, your model, and its result, its conclusion, all of that is included within Karma. As they say, "Do good deeds, don't worry about the fruits." Your deeds should be good. Why is all this said? Because it is a very crucial element, a crucial part of you. That is why you are seeing that within Karma, what are you saying? It is a very important social base of Indian society. Karma is good action. Let's talk about Karma in two ways. First, what is Karma? It can be a good action or a bad action. Therefore, you are told that if you do good actions, it results in your Moksha. If your Karma is not right, not dharma-oriented, then you will never be able to achieve it in the end. So that becomes the central part of the philosophy of Karma. And if you do not keep your life modulated, coordinated through Karma, through Dharma, if you do not follow those values, then what will happen? You will not attain liberation. You will not attain liberation, meaning you will not attain Moksha. So what will happen? You will have rebirth. So, Karma also becomes very important for this reason.

Next and last, which you are seeing in your unit. Let's open the syllabus of the unit again so that you understand what all we are dealing with. We have already studied Varna Ashram, studied Varna and Ashram, and also looked at Purushartha. We have also seen Karma. The last part asked in the unit is Rina and Rebirth. We are telling you this so that you know that we are strictly focused on the syllabus. Because you also know, if you had an orientation session or attended the YouTube session, we told you that in UPSC, you do not read more than 5% of the entire knowledge present in the display. Any research, even that achieves a maximum of 25 to 35% of the text, and that too within their particular specialization. It is difficult to cross that line. Therefore, we are focusing you on the syllabus here.

So, the last part in your unit was what? Rina and Rebirth. So, what is Rina? Rina means debt. We talk about it, right? Because, oh, this Rina is left on me, this debt is left on me. So, you come into life, and your engagement is there. As soon as you arrive, you have a Rina, a debt towards different people. First, what is it? You also have to give something to someone in return, why? Because it is continuing the quantity of the human species. So, you understand this as Pitri Rina. There is also your Guru's Rina. You learned something from someone. If there is no learning, you will not be able to lead your life successfully. We told you that in Brahmacharya, you are learning all those things, all those things that will solve your problems, so that you can lead your life successfully and be satisfied. So, you are learning all those things from someone, that is your training, that is your learning. So, you have a debt towards your Guru. You see the concept of Guru Dakshina, you have heard some stories. You have heard the story of Dronacharya. So, you are seeing the concept of Guru Dakshina there.

Next, you are talking about Rina. Here, in a literal term, it is called debt. You have seen this, you have understood this. It is a central part of the value system. Every individual comes to the world with certain debts. You are born, and from the day you are born, there is a debt on you, Pitri Rina is on you. You have been created, you have been brought to live, so it is also your duty to further the creation, to create yourself, to contribute to the continuity of life. And he has to repay this debt in his life. In his lifetime, you have to repay this debt. If you don't, you won't get Moksha, and you will get stuck in this cycle of rebirth. That is why we have kept Rina and Rebirth together here. So, here, it is being said that different types of Rina include your birth. You are seen in the form of a human. So, there is Deva Rina on you. Wherever you go, in different Smritis, if you pick up and look at different Smritis, the scriptures, if you pick them up and look at them, they differ. That a human has towards another human. You say humans are social animals, social beings, so you cannot live in isolation. Your interaction is necessary. Sometimes you have problems, so people say the doctor is healing you. You are taking something from a shopkeeper. You say, right? That if someone is at the border, then you are safe, or if the farmer is farming, then food is reaching you. The teacher is teaching you, then you are being trained, you are sorting out the problems of your life, or you are leading your life successfully by engaging in some economic activity. So, every person you meet, with whom you associate, has a Rina on you. They are also helping you in your survival in some way. If you are alone, you cannot live alone. Isolation is not possible. So, that is why you say there is also Manav Rina. So, we have not written it here because it is not calculated or included in the major Rina. And in some Smritis, in some places, Manav Rina is also seen. And somewhere, you are seeing this Atithi Rina, that you go as a guest. So, a guest is also a Rina towards people. The payment of all these is very important. If you don't do it, what will you not attain? Moksha. And if you don't attain Moksha, then you will have rebirth, and you will be in this cycle of birth and death, this never-ending cycle. Here you are, here you are. You remain in this. Sometimes you get out of it, and your ultimate goal, that is Paramatma, returns to it. This is what Indian philosophy has been saying, or science, or if we are talking about the Indian philosophical system, society, and its nature, its traditional values, then they say that you are a part of this. Your soul, Jiva Atma, you can see it as a unit of Paramatma. So, it will go back into it. So, that is your ultimate goal, which you are calling Moksha, to be liberated from this cycle of birth and death. So, I hope this part of Purushartha is clear to you. Now, the circle we showed you, this is an integration between what. Let's change the color first, erase these, and then I will tell you between what this is. You are seeing the horizontal and vertical engagement of both of these. And along with that, Rina is also connected, Karma is also where it is, and Dharma is also there. Dharma and Rina, why these things are not seen in this, you can also add them to this cycle and see. So, you see how, first of all, these are your stages of life. The first stage is Brahmacharya. Here, you see the primacy of Dharma. You are just doing Dharma, not accumulating wealth. So, not the primacy of Karma. Although you will say that Karma is also there because learning is also a kind of effort. But here, Karma is majorly associated with the accumulation of wealth through these stages. So, you don't have to accumulate wealth there. That's why you will say that nature is more religious and more devoted towards the learning, pious process. Even the system of Gurukul, where learning was happening, that was also considered religious by nature. So, primarily. When you reach Grihastha Ashram, here you are seeing all of these. Wealth will be present everywhere. Its primacy can change. For example, when you enter Grihastha, the primacy of Karma is more. Accumulation of wealth becomes central to you. Your actions are for your livelihood and for those whom you have to support and provide for, meaning your younger ones and your elders. You are making efforts for them, fulfilling your responsibilities. The third is Vanaprastha, which we talked about, preparation. And finally, you retire, and you leave worldly pleasures. So, you see all these stages. Dharma is seen everywhere. If you do anything without Dharma, it is irreligious by nature. Dharma means what is expected of you. What can you call it? What is your expected behavior? We often talk about this. Expected behavior, which is yours. You are studying, so what will I expect from you? That you study sincerely. If I ask a question now, it's not live. If it were live, I would ask you some questions. I am not asking you a question, "Mr. XYZ, please tell me, what should this thing be according to what we just studied?" I ask you any question, or something from the previous lecture, and you are sleeping. "Yes sir, yes, yes, I don't know." This is not expected behavior. In this way, you are expecting me to teach, to teach sincerely. And it's not that while teaching, I get a phone call, or someone from Zomato or Flipkart comes, and I call them inside, "Yes brother, tell me, take this OTP, complete my delivery." We are not expecting that from you. That is the wrong thing. It does not fit with my expected behavior. So, on both sides, there are always expected behaviors. You have to follow them, and Dharma provides moral guidelines. This is in your every aspect, within the expected system, within the traditional ecosystem. So, you are seeing it this way. And finally, when we are doing all these things, and along with that, what is going on? All these things, Karma. You are following your Dharma according to Karma. You are carrying out all the Ashramas. And here, you are also fulfilling your duties. Meaning, Karma is also a significant portion at some stage. Creation will happen from it. What you said about Grihastha Ashram, creation is there. You have Rina, what is it? Pitri Rina. You have come, someone has given you life, so you also have to give life. That is possible only through Karma, right? At some stage, when you are young, dependent on someone, and when you become very old, you are also dependent on someone. So, you also have to support someone. That is also a Rina on you, even if it doesn't have a separate name. So, that is why you are seeing that Artha is an important part. You have to accumulate wealth there. Only through wealth can you support someone. Wealth is not only related to money. In modern science, it is money. In ancient times, it was not rupees or dollars. There, you were doing agriculture, providing food, shelter, clothing. So, it might be talking about Artha in that sense. Understand its relevance from this: at the time when this was prevalent. Do not mix contemporary and traditional. You have to fulfill them at every stage. With every stage, something different is attached to you, and you are fulfilling it. Like Atithi Rina, it is almost nothing, it is universal, you will see it present at all times. When can you repay it? You can repay it at the stage of Grihastha. How can you create someone? Of course, in Brahmacharya, you are not progressing new life by getting married, right? Or when you are old, at that time, you are not going to do it. That was an action from a long time ago, Karma from a long time ago. That is from the time of Grihastha Ashram. So, Grihastha Ashram. So, all these systems, behaviors, values, norms, by carrying everything in the correct way, ultimately you will go. You are following. So, this is your ultimate goal, which is shown in the circle. Understand that it is on your mind. So, this is seen there. Let's move it up again. So, I hope, or let's do one thing, the best way is this. Yes, it's okay. So, you are doing things this way. So, if you are not following, this is the following part, that you are following everything correctly. If you are not following Dharma, Karma, if something has not been done correctly by you, your actions are not in the right direction, your Dharma is not being fulfilled, your Rina is not being fulfilled, then ultimately you will lead to this thing that is not expected. See, they were running away even now. Similarly, the mind of a person wanders. So, when your mind wanders during the lecture, leave this and focus. Focus is also very important in life. And from this, you will attain Moksha. You also want Moksha, right? The meaning of Moksha can be different for you. It differs for people. So, if you don't do it, you get rebirth. And here, in a way, it is a system of reward and punishment. If anything is told to you, in this system, people also have this structure: you will eat like this, this is Dharma, these are the rules, don't do this on this day, don't do that on that day, don't eat this, don't drink this, don't wear this. So, no one will follow just like that. So, you have to show some fear. There is an angle of reward, and there is an angle of punishment. So, all these things are shown by any authority. Even your penal code, it also shows you fear. Don't commit a crime, otherwise, you will be jailed under this section. Nowadays, even that jail is not happening. Nowadays, you are seeing another mode. And on the road, people are firing like journalists. You must have understood who we are talking about. And that is not our portion. We are related to anthropology. So, we usually stay away from the noise of the world. We are peaceful people, dealing with peaceful things in a peaceful way. So, you have seen Purushartha, Karma, and Rina and Rebirth. Let's come to the caste system unit, which is your Unit 3.2, the Varna unit. We said we would look at the caste system again properly. And we understood some of its theories, its nature, the meaning of Varna. We also saw the difference between caste and Varna, or the separation that we will deal with in the live session. Ambedkar becomes very significant. And for now, in a summary form, we have read the origin, and the second major portion, the characteristics of the caste system, let's finish that. So, that is sufficient for us because it has already been an hour. So, we hardly have 30 minutes or 25 minutes to handle. Quite a lot of portion is still left. So, when you talk about characteristics, you see a segmented division in the class. You know, society is divided into different segments. Like Brahmins, Vaishyas. So, all these that you see. If you see it in the form of a triangle, let's say if red color is this triangle, then all these Brahmins, so these particular lines you are showing, what are they? They are segments, they are different strata, levels. So, that is what they are talking about. It is inherent, or in nature. Inherent means it is from birth. You come, and you don't select. In the hospital, whether to register me as a Kshatriya. I have a great mood for fighting, so register me as a Kshatriya. The nurse says, "Okay, I'll do it. Your fixed is correct." It doesn't happen like that. You are a Kshatriya by birth, or Brahmin, whatever you are. So, your caste, your Varna, is described by birth. And what is this called in sociological terms? You call it ascribed nature. Something is of two types, right? There are two types of status. Caste is a status, it gives you status in society. Status can be high or low. Caste gives status in society. So, caste is also of two types. One is ascribed, which is by birth, which you got without effort. And the second is achieved, meaning you have to work hard to get it. So, being the Prime Minister, that is also a status, a position, but what kind is it? It is an achieved position. I don't think a dialogue from a capable actor like Hrithik Roshan will be formed. So, that is it. No one is Prime Minister by birth. So, you see that. You know who is at the top, who is at the bottom. There is a fashion. In fact, we are waiting. And here, the category is the fifth class market. You can marry within your caste. Outside the caste, it is taboo. In a way, there are many restrictions. Sometimes there are fights. And in India, in orthodox setups, if you go and see, there is a concept of purity and pollution. Purity of things.

It is said whether this thing is right or this thing is not right. I saw different things and different diets there. In fact, it also happens with food. We are looking at the concept of kachcha food (raw food) and pakka food (cooked food). Who can eat what food? What can a higher class person eat from a lower class? Can they eat pakka? Can they eat kachcha? Can they drink water? Can they not? There are many such teachers or taboos related to this. There are occupational restrictions within the caste system, where it is said that if you are a carpenter, you will do carpentry work, if you are a cobbler, you will do cobbler work. So there are restrictions of this nature. That is why our reformers said about the caste system that first of all, it is necessary for us to remove the caste system, only then our social upliftment will be possible. There are different festivals, different groups. It is not about varna, varna is a pan-Indian concept. Okay, you see varna increasing from North to South, East to West. But you can see caste groups like Lingayats in different regions. There are Patidars, Jats. Okay, you see Rajputs. Rajputs also come under Kshatriyas. Some claim to be Rajput, Dubey, Verma. All these you are seeing are caste groups, these are caste groups, not varna. Varna is a pan-Indian concept. What is caste? It is a regional concept, a localized concept. Okay. So similarly, you are seeing that every caste also has its own festivals. For example, I think Vishwakarma Puja is performed among the Kayasthas. Okay. Within some groups, there is Damad Puja. You even see that the iron smiths also worship Vishwakarma. Kayasthas also perform Damad Puja there. So different groups also have different festivals. We just talked about taboos of food and water, right? Did caste-based festivals come twice? Has this thing come twice? Please do not mind. Sir, second is disabilities and privileges. If you have a caste, then you have some privileges, and if another person does not have it, they have disabilities. If you are of a higher caste, you can go to the temple, you can study, you can do this, you can do that. If you are from a lower caste, it will be said that you cannot come to class, you cannot get education, you cannot read the Vedas, you cannot do this. So caste used to impose rejection on different groups. Next, you are seeing that there is traditional occupation, which has been discussed here. There are restrictions, and it is a person's tradition, meaning what his previous generation did, he will continue to do the same. He is not free to move. Next, let's talk about untouchability. It is the main characteristic. It should be placed first. So the concept of this video comes. So all these things you are seeing characteristically. You have studied caste. The term "dominant caste" comes. Let's look at that. Now, dominant caste has its own hierarchy. Some castes are big, some are small. You are seeing the fifth class. But you see that on a regional basis, the caste system in India is different. If you consider your status, where do they come? In the varna model, they come at the lower model, at the lower rank. But you see that when you go to that region, you see dominance there. Regional dominance. You talk about Jats, you talk about Gujjars, especially you talk about Jats. In the region of Haryana, they come down in the varna model, but their dominance and dominance have different reasons, which we will also deal with. Why is there dominance? They are lower in varna, so their status is also lower. So you are seeing that their functions will also be restricted. There might be a big group, but it doesn't happen. Why? Because they have many resources, on the basis of which they are dominant in the region. That is, they are not Brahmins, but their status, their power in that region, is more than that of Brahmins. You can take the example of Patidars. You are seeing this thing in different regions. So this was the concept of dominant caste. We also have to study the MN one. We are working against the structure. Varna, as it says, in any region, pan-India, Brahmins will have the most supremacy, Brahmins and Kshatriyas. But this shows how others are in a lower layer, yet they are dominant in that region. There are reasons for this. These reasons have changed at different times. When they first wrote, they mentioned some reasons, and later in the 90s, you see that different scholars add some other reasons. The primary reasons are first, numerical strength. You are very large in number, your population is very large. In a region, you may be of a lower caste or lower varna, but if you are 100 and the upper caste is 10 in number, then your numerical strength will increase. Second is the amount of agricultural land. You are seeing this. Even when talking about Jats, they have such resources. The third is that you have close contact with neighboring villages of different castes. Your members there also have good links. In modern science, when it has been updated, reservation has also been added to it. Many groups have reservation, so they have good education. Employment in the government sector. You will see many from lower castes, but you will see them becoming civil servants. So, their status has clearly improved, they have become dominant. If two castes are removed from that region, then that group becomes dominant there. So all these characteristics you are seeing. And what is special about it is that when they were working in Stanford, they worked in a village called Rampur. Usually, the names are seen in many places. So these names are not real names. Because sometimes when collecting information, the villagers feel that if they reveal the name of the village, the information can be of different types. It is possible that in some village, some very strange practice is happening, somewhere, as we talked about today, headhunting is happening, somewhere there is a different kind of culture, which may not be well received by general people. So an image is spoiled. That is why sometimes these people use a pen name, just like authors sometimes use a pen name. In the movie "Bareilly Ki Barfi," they use a changed name. Like poetry, poems. In this way, you see that the name of the village is given under a pen name, under a student name. This is not in every case, but in most cases, they used to use a pseudonym in the past. So you are seeing Rampur. They have worked in Rampur. And Rampur is a village, and you are seeing it in the region of Mysore. This work was done over a long period, and many aspects were studied. They studied marriage, kinship, and they wanted to produce a detailed account in an ethnographic form. But the problem is that when they were in Stanford, the office in Stanford caught fire, and their entire diaries, three pairs of diaries, their entire corpus, burned down. And that is why they published their entire work on Rampur village based on their memory. That is why it was later called "Remembered Villages," which was published in 1976. So, I hope you have understood the concept of dominant caste. After dominant caste, we talk about caste mobility. So what is caste mobility? You have seen that we read that there are occupational restrictions in caste, you cannot mobilize. If someone is of a certain varna, like Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Shudras, then it is not that they will go to the very top. There are restrictions on movement. What do you call restrictions on movement? You call it restriction on mobility. Mobility means freedom of movement, whether you can move or not. That is, there is no mobility. Where there is no restriction, where the system is open, you will come there, there is mobility. And mobility can be divided into two types based on nature. One is upward mobilization. How does it happen? It can happen through the rulers. Sometimes you see that people from lower varnas fight, and their status is uplifted. They start being seen as upper castes there. Second, in the population census, many people lie. That used to happen before. Nowadays, a lot of in-depth work is being done on this later. In the early period, you see, especially in the period of 1890, 1891, the census had just come. The structure was not as recognized. There were not as many officials. Their effort, in a way, to record data. Sometimes people, for example, prostitutes, claim to be Rajputs because there is no paperwork, documentation, and all these things. And not much importance is given to it in the early period. So that is one method. Sanskritization. We will study this. It has both things. We will study it. So there are other groups, members of this group. For example, you talk about Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. Prominent political power. You talk about Mulayam Singh Yadav, Lalu Prasad Yadav. So the Yadav caste group is also seen to be in dominance. So this is a feature of mobility. Downward mobility, how does it happen? Reverse all of this. Groups that are not favored for equality. So in that time too, you will see that their status can go down. Second is the occurrence of peasantization. So this was the entire discussion on mobility. After mobility, what do we need to focus on? The future of the caste system. This is usually written in a general form. A general question can be asked, so you are evaluating each aspect of caste, each feature, each characteristic discussed, and what changes are coming in them, what is the source of those changes. So it will take a lot of time. So we will not go into the future of the caste system. Let's move on to Jajmani and CCC. So the Jajmani system is seen in villages and in India, which is a relationship. You see a social relationship between the Jajman and the Kamins. Who is the Jajman and who is the Kamin? You usually see in Indian weddings, people are coming from all over, someone is performing something. The priest is offering his priestly services. The pandit or purohit there will do it in his way. Some groups come to do domestic work. For example, shoes, all these things. A tailor will stitch all the wedding clothes. So every group, different ones. Some are iron smiths, black smiths. Everyone performs their function there. So this relationship you are seeing. The one who is getting it done, the one who is taking the services, is called the Jajman. Hence, the Kamin and the services are being given by different people. For example, here you can say black smith, cobbler. So they are connected with him, and this leads to social security, economic society, and Jajmani is seen as an important part of India. So the relationship is not just like giving service, employer and employee. It is a family-like relationship. And here the mode of payment was not money. Later, you see that money also takes its place, but the mode of payment was in kind. What is the definition system? It is a system of exchange of goods and services. Goods and services. We have talked about it. What are goods? An iron smith, or it can be his product. The black smith exchanges his product for iron goods. So it is an exchange of goods and services between members of different castes. That is, here too, you see a cobbler's caste, so it will be a different caste. And second, it is an important institution that is working. In North India, there are different names. In fact, UGC NET people are sometimes asked names in exams. Which of these names are used for Jajmani? So the name Balotra is given, and many other terms are used for this. The concept of Tribal-Caste Continuum (CCC) has been given by different people. And Robert Redfield was a prominent scholar of the Chicago School. You are talking about the Chicago School. So Redfield was a prominent scholar there. You are going to Manchester, so different people come there. Don't confuse them. We are talking about Chicago. Robert Redfield is a prominent scholar of the Chicago School. His work is quite extensive on civilization and culture. So much so that his prominent followers are called civilizationists or Redfieldians because they are carrying forward Redfield's work. So this is Redfield's work here, which he did. Robert Redfield is his full name. And he did work on "The Folk Culture of Yucatan," where he talked about the folk-urban continuum. How different societies are seen. Our village, our city, our tribal. There are four different groups. One is completely urban, one is semi-urban, seen towards the city. Second, you are seeing folk culture. And the last one is towards tribal culture. He is saying that there is a movement from the most organized and the least to a series of fashion. So on this basis, other people, F.G. Bailey, many Indian authorities, have given a new concept. They explain tribes by saying that you cannot demarcate between tribe and caste. Earlier there was confusion, especially in 1891, as we mentioned, so sometimes there was difficulty. We also said in Tribal Interpolations where this terminology came from. So people had difficulty distinguishing which group to call a tribe and which to call a caste, because the features sometimes overlapped. But for the purpose of administration, it was very important to distinguish. And when it comes to distinguishing, scholars were asked, how do we do it? So here you don't see a clear boundary. Some characteristics of tribes. We told you earlier that tribes are isolated, they have this, they have that. Sometimes it was seen that the same thing also plays a role in caste. At that time, it was very important for categorization. But you see that in modern times, this thing is seen as an isolated identity or as an extreme, existing independently. In what form? It is in the form of a continuum. Here is T, here is C, and there is no demarcation to tell you that if it is in this, then it is a tribe, and if it is in this, then it is a caste. Here you are seeing continuity, and there is movement. All these things are explained as a continuum of tribes. Here we also read many case studies about how CCC is happening. Touch is also happening through different methods. There is the concept of universalization, the concept of particularization. Many students of Redfield's school, including Mckim Marriott, Milton Singer, through their work, you are reading about how this movement is happening. How tribes are gradually changing into castes. So you see examples of CCC there. For example, F.G. Bailey worked on the Konds and Uriya population. Surjit Singh worked on someone else. So similarly, you are reading about everyone's work. It's over. You can take a screenshot of the image. Or you can find it in the Telegram group, Anthropology Decode. And if I can bring it soon, this is our Instagram page. And if you DM me, I will remember to upload it. Sepians Mall. Next is your Sacred Complex and the contribution of anthropologists to nature. This is a very important portion in Paper Two. And within that, we see all these names or concepts coming here. And what is special is that both concepts given in 3.3. First is SC, which you are calling Sacred Complex. Change the color. SC, and second is MS or MMS, Nature Complex. Both of these concepts are by a popular anthropologist, very famous, L.P. in short, and his full name is Lalita Prasad Vidyarthi. Bihar School of.

Interpol G, or the United Provinces as it used to be, you will find their names associated with it. And there are many global actors, very big actors who have been in India. Dilip Kumar, Rajesh Khanna, Dharmendra, Amitabh Bachchan, right? Mithun, Govinda, these are all very big actors of Mars. They are very famous among the small citizens of Mars. And people like Raj Kapoor, who were quite famous abroad, Dilip Kumar also abroad, Amitabh Bachchan also has a great following in Africa. Salman Khan's good following is also visible. But ultimately, if you talk about an actor's global representation, then Shah Rukh Khan. You see Shah Rukh Khan as a prominent face in brands. Recently, there was a list, and he was in the number one position. There were many others like Ronaldo, Messi, and many such people. They were not Indian. So, in the list of readers, and perhaps later another list came, which is a critical list, and along with it, Rajamouli also features. So, two Indians are seen in the list that came out in 2030. So, these are the prominent names. In this way, if you are resting in the field of anthropology and asking who is the global icon, who is the global face, then one is MS, sorry, we just read about Srinivas, and the other is NPB. These people are very famous in foreign regions. Their work has gone far, and the special thing is that they gave theories, concepts. For example, if you talk about MS, sorry, Manj Srinivas, he also gave the concept of Sanskritization. He has also given dominance, horizontal and vertical. Sorry, contributing is a very difficult task. Adding to theory is a very difficult thing. And if someone does it, they become very famous. For example, the evolutionary school, all these schools, who contributed to them? The famous people worldwide. Similarly, L.P. Vidyarthi gave the concept of sacred complex. He has also talked about nature, man, and spirit. And he has many other works. So, what is a sacred complex? A sacred complex is a happy synthesis. You see, if you go to Varanasi, you are going to Kashi, right? You go to Bihar, and Chhath Puja is happening. So, what is this? This is like a sacred complex. In a sacred complex, you see the interaction of three forces or three people. So, sacred practices, meaning the Aarti that is happening there, the Puja, the Ganga Aarti you see. And if you are talking about Bihar, there are Shraddhas, Pind Daan, these are all sacred practices. Sacred specialists are those who are conducting them. When you go to Kashi, you might find an Aghori, or for the rituals, there are different people. In Shraddha also, people disappear, so the Gaya-wall Brahmins are the specialists who conduct it. So, they come under sacred specialists. Sacred geography, this is where the place itself comes, which acts as a center in itself, as a center of culture. Whether you are talking about Bihar, talking about Gaya. We talked about the Shraddha of India, and you talk about Kashi, Varanasi. So, in a way, it was acting as a center of culture or civilization. So, this is important work of whom? Of L.P. Vidyarthi. And when was it published? Sacred Complex of Hindu Gaya, in the year 1961. Before this also, he worked on the sacred complex when his research was being published, around 1958. And finally, in book form, he did detailed work here. And inspired by this, many other people later came. For example, Makhan Jha. And Mr. B.N. Saraswati. Both these people are from the Janakpur, Nepal region, and other different regions of the South. So, they studied and understood the sacred complex of different places. They tried to understand the interaction between what? The interaction in the sacred complex is between practices, geography, and specialists. Right? It is given here. If you talk about the tribal front, we have always talked about their great attachment to the forest, to nature, to nature. Their immediate surroundings are usually isolated. Why? Because they don't want to leave. So, you also see the government's side. When a project comes, they want to displace them, build a dam, build something, so they don't move. They have so much attachment to their land, to the nature around them. Their entire livelihood, their economy, depends on it. Their culture, their religion, everything is connected to nature. So, they are talking about a coordination between nature, man, and spirit. And what is its utility? Many times, when the government is making development schemes, there are riots, or the tribes do not agree, they get angry. So, for them not to get angry and for everything to happen smoothly, you should have an understanding through their nature, man, and spirit complex. How you understand man, nature, and the spirits there. This work was done by L.P. Vidyarthi, especially on the Mal Paharia population. And there you see examples of spirits like Gosain and many other Elche. These are spirits. Nature, their surroundings, their economic means, shifting cultivation, are all connected. And man, meaning they themselves, the Malls, or the Mal Paharia. So, there is an interaction between them. And if you disturb this, it creates an equilibrium. And when you try to shake this, try to disturb it, conflicts arise. Therefore, when doing development and work, it is very important to keep this in mind. This is what his work says. This is the work between Malaria, or Mal Paharia, as it is called. Which was published 2 years later. His first work was in 61, the second you see in 63. Where do we read in detail? This is all the cream. This is the detailed part. We are explaining the concepts. And where will you get the full masala, the full nutrition? In our Antarji's live batches starting from April 21st. And now, on the occasion of Civil Services Day, from the 18th to the 21st, we have further discounted it to 1499 for enrollment. And I will be waiting to see you all in the orientation. We will upload it. Coming to 3.4, it talks about the impact of different religions. We also talked about this in the tribal section. They are acting as a positive and negative factor. So, we tried to understand on both fronts what the impact is here on Indian society. Here, the impact or effect on tribals is not being discussed. Here, the discussion is about how different religions came to Indian society, came at different times, interacted in India, and how they have fitted into the fabric of Indian society. So, looking at Buddhism, there are many impacts. Do you know the best way to study an impact? To get a black side. Yes, the impact is positive and negative. We studied it in the tribal section. Here you have to study it in Indian society. So, divide it. What would have been the impact on the socio-cultural front? You can also include education. If you are not including it, then you can make it a separate point on education, literacy, or the front. If they ask you broadly, then divide it and proceed by subdividing. Another is the contribution on the architectural or literary front. On the basis of this, these are some broad headings based on which you will judge the impact of any religion on Indian society. For example, the impact of Buddhism. So, what do you see? The impact of Buddhism or Jainism on the economic front is that first of all, they attracted merchants, the guilds, the Shrenis. They attracted them a lot. They were the first followers. Even in modern times, you see that Jains, Parsis, or Buddhists are very much connected. You see here. Their needs are the least. You also see reservations. They asked for reservations very late, or never asked. They got reservations very late because there was no need. And you also see the names of the biggest business tycoons here. And when talking about architecture, the first image you see in India is of Buddha. You study different schools, right? In art, which school's image do you see? So, all of them are Amravati. You see that. You talk about the Mathura school, the Gandhara school. So, all of them are seen developing during the time of Buddhism. So, on the front of pillars, you can count them. The different pillars, the cave art, based on that, you can see it. Stupas, this is all art, their contribution on the architectural front. On the language front, different languages came, and you see their amalgamation. So, on every front, you see them from outside. Talking about Islam, it also has its own differences. So, you see all these things there. And once you count Islam, what changes are coming through Islam? So, through Islam, there have been changes in architecture as well. Big grand buildings started being built, right? You see the system of Jharokha. It existed before, and their entry into it, the design in it. The architectural structure you see. You talk about it, you study it, all this comes under attention. Clothing, costumes also came. You can study all these things. What came in education? This is how we deal with this entire unit. Talking about 4, it is about emergence and growth. Development in India. What growth happened through what stages of development? If you consider the display in India, then you consider different answers in different ways. For example, the University of Lucknow, from where my entire MSc was completed, their department established it. And that department is the third department in India. First, you see it in basic in 1920. Which one happened? Kolkata University. In 1947, Delhi University. And in 1950-51, you see the Anthropology department starting at the University of Lucknow. So, they have divided it into phases: formative period, constructive period, critical period. So, from 1774 to 1901, they did it. And 171237. This is the entire table. You will get this entire table in the group. And we also talked about L.P. Vidyarthi. He divided it in this way. Basu also divided it in this way. So, you see different divisions by different people. Unit 5.1, talking about the village. First, you understand the structure of the Indian village. The English system, caste basis, you see all those things. Then read the changes happening in it. Is it becoming modernized? Is there contact? Roads are being built. Communication, internet has also reached. What impact did all these things have? You see all those processes in this unit. So, what is the relevance? So, you see all these relevances in it. So, this was all about the introduction, the marathon session on Indian Anthropology. We still have two more left. One is Archaeological, and the other is our entire Physical. Let's do it at least. Archaeology itself is a very unique and peculiar discipline. Why do we say unique and peculiar? Because it is a discipline that has the power to change the present state and direction at any time. Often, you see in society, especially if you talk about India, knowing, recognizing, and evaluating historical content and historical antiquity becomes a big question. Here, who was the first settler? Different societies, different religions, different periods, and different kingdoms were formed here. And during this time, you need to know which structures were pre-existing and which were built later. Who came before whom? Who broke whom? Where did the structures begin from? And how old would those structures have been? You look at the Mughal period, the Sultanate period, the Vijayanagar Empire. And especially, the depth of archaeology is usually searching for prehistoric societies. Even when we don't have written records available, and it presents an interpretation for the study. It is on this template that we are connected with you today in our new session. And here our marathon is going on. Our marathon will be covering. By the time this video reaches you, three to four videos will have already reached you. In this, first, what did we cover? Socio-cultural. In what time period? It takes one month for the theories part. It takes approximately one month, 25 to 30 days, depending on the depth or need. At what time are we reading at what speed? How much coverage is happening? How many doubts are coming? These are dynamic portions, dynamic factors. Based on these, the length varies. But roughly, we have discussed the material for that one-month period with you. Under Anthropology Theories Marathon, within I think two hours. And not even two full hours. I think in around 100 minutes, we have covered the entire theoretical part of Anthropology. Next, two series of 90 minutes each have reached you. One is Tribal and Indian. And today we are going to cover, evaluate, and unfold Physical Anthropology. And our time period will be, it is again going to be like 90-100 minutes. It will be within 100 minutes. We will cover the entire Physical Anthropology in 100 minutes. Talking about Archaeological Anthropology, it becomes a bit problematic. Especially Anthropology and Ecology are separate. And Archaeological Anthropology, its reading is very overlapping. And yet, we have some different tests, some different add-ons, based on which we say that we are studying past societies in a distinctive way. But our interpretation and our technology, the way we stress them, and the kind of information we want to obtain, are quite different. The difficulty I mentioned is that you get a lot of material on archaeology. Talk to me about history, and especially about archaeological anthropology related to UPSC, you don't get sources in India. Friends are often worried, saying, sir, there are many books, which one should I choose? Usually, in the old days, if you asked someone around 2015-16, most aspirants who were successful in Anthropology used to refer to D.K. Bhattacharya, M.K. Barker's book, or Sankalia. A very old book by H.D. Sankalia, who is considered a central figure in Indian prehistory, many people also consider him the father of Indian prehistory. You also get his books. Along with that, you find many other texts. If you talk about covering the UPSC syllabus, particularly archaeological anthropology, the problem is that most of the texts, whether you talk about Barker, or K.P. Oakhla's book, "The Stone Tool Maker," or D.K. Bhattacharya's two or three books. One is on general prehistory, one is on European history, and one is on Indian. He has written books on tribal, general, and Indian anthropology. And these books are very old. Or the updation or addition in language is from a very old time, about two to three decades ago. You know that daily research is happening in archaeology, and some new findings are coming. And these texts cannot accommodate all of them. So, they become very outdated. The material is also insufficient. Many materials are available in the market. Children are asking us, sir, this material, that material. That is why what we have done, when you enroll in our batches, here also, what we are going to tell you in summary form, is based on reliable sources with recent updates. The data we have available, we provide you with a summary or in summary form. The marathon we are conducting here is also based on recent data. And if you want to know in depth, according to the UPSC syllabus, then our batches, there are only two days left, I think. There is confusion, a complete mess, but you don't need to worry about it at all. Because we refer to more than half of the textbooks just for archaeological anthropology. Recent publications in new magazines or journals, reports of recent excavations, we summarize all of them and include them in your lecture notes in a comprehensive form, which is delivered to you by the next day, so that there is no hurdle in your preparation journey. So, here we have talked about the nature of archaeological anthropology, what problems arise. Next, we talk about the PDFs you get. Sometimes questions come, they come from them. Someone can find one of our pens, someone the other. So, sometimes people comment in the comment section saying, what is the Telegram link, what is it? It's not possible. It's not possible. We are not expanding the space. The administrator has included it in the slide for you. So, on Telegram, all the materials, questions, all the PPTs, PDFs, and many other interactive things, notes, sometimes we supply new data reports, we share them. Not just regarding Anthropology, but often related to GS as well.

For any portion or related news of current affairs, we are also providing it there, so that you find it on the Telegram channel of Anthropology Decoded. You will type this in the search box of Telegram, and you will find the channel. And this is your universal code, applicable to any course. Its Study IQ. If you want to enroll in any course, get entry into any course, study material, or want to read anything, use this code. Use this code or type it and get the maximum possible discount. And for those who want to interact with us, have some queries, personalized doubts, and want them to be addressed, this is our Instagram handle of Sapiens World. S A P I E N S, right? We, the Homo Sapiens, use it. Get your queries cleared through me. No straight jump to the main point. Today's marathon journey is to be undertaken, and what is it? Basically, before going into archaeological anthropology, we need to clear some basics. In Indian, it's fine, we will jump into the state because you have studied Indian society, Indian social institutions, organizations, associations, etc. So, all those things are still a bit familiar to you. Even in socio-cultural, there is no need for some basics. Similarly, in most thoughts, you know, you just need to tell what thought history is. We have explained that there. It's a one-minute job. But here, especially the tribal anthropology part, it is important for you to clarify. We have clarified tribal for you, what a tribe actually is, whom you will call a tribe, and how a tribe is different from a Scheduled Tribe, and how a Scheduled Tribe is different from a ST or a PC. So, it is important to give you this complete conceptual clarity before jumping into these topics. Live batches are there, so we use many examples and many case studies, and many examples from popular culture as well. Examples of movies, examples of cricket, examples related to religion, society, many such examples that you see in your day-to-day life, we use them to explain these things to you. That is very nice and very, very good for someone who is not from the anthropology background. Most of the students here come from outside backgrounds. You can propose that very few people have studied it. So, at the graduation level or at the post-graduation level, very few are enrolled. Even if we talk about toppers, one was from IIT Guwahati, pursuing a design course, then he came here. So, in this way, someone is coming from a medical background, someone is coming from somewhere else, because they know that you will not get such a scoring subject anywhere else, whether it's a humanities person or a science person. So, it's a bridge between humanity and science, and scoring marks stretching 325+ marks is most easy when you follow and choose your optional. So, here it is the same thing that before going into archaeological anthropology, you should study what it is. Just archaeology, which you might have heard or read about. Maybe it was told to you in history as well. When we talk about archaeological anthropology, what is its scope? In what domain does it look at things? So, it is the study of social behavior, socio-cultural behavior in the proto-historic and prehistoric periods. We have told you about proto-historic many times, let me tell you once again. It is the period for which we have written records available, and you can read and understand what is written in them. It can be interpreted, it can be deciphered. That is called the historic period. For example, you have records from the modern era, you can read and understand them. You can read the words of Fa Xian, you can read the words of Xuanzang, you can read the words of Megasthenes. Similarly, you have the Arthashastra, you can read it. So, these are historical records on the basis of which history is written. So, you can read all these data. After this period, you will find many sources in different regional languages, in Prakrit, in Pali, in Ardha Magadhi, in texts in Persian, Arabic. Many languages are coming, later English and European languages are also coming. So, you are reading all that, learning, deciphering, understanding, comprehending. So, all that data and evidence belong to which period? Historic. But before this, there comes a period before the historic period, where you have found data, where written records or some evidence in written form are found. But you cannot read and understand them. For example, if you have never been to Spain, and you go to Spain, and you pick up something near a shop, or you go to Spain and pick it up. Maybe you want to find something, let's say you are looking for dosa, or you want to eat momos there, and it is written on that board that it is a momo shop or a dosa shop, but you cannot read Spanish, so you won't be able to know. So, that's the thing, the data is in front of you, the information is in front of you in written form, but you cannot comprehend it, cannot decipher it, because you don't know the language, you don't have the understanding of the language. So, this is what they talked about in a modern sense. Modern languages are easy to learn. Google Translate, various software, now artificial intelligence is creating such a stir in the world, so now this has become easy. But prehistoric societies, of course, even your ChatGPT cannot translate it yet. So, where do we get the records from? The best example of proto-historic in India, if you take it, is the Indus Valley Civilization, or Harappan society. There, you will find written evidence from one or two places. If you go to the Dholavira site, you will find it there. It's like a board, a sign board, with inscriptions on it. And many people in South India, in many languages, in Dravidian languages, have been trying to understand it for many years, claiming to have translated it many times, that they are very close to deciphering the Indus script. But no concrete बात has come out yet. So, this is proto-historic, where you have found the evidence in written form, but you cannot decipher it and tell what exactly is written in it. Even before this, you go into prehistoric, where you don't have written records. That is called historic. Now, there is a technical point, it's not that there were no written records at that time, but those written records are not with you, or you have not discovered them yet. The Indus Valley Civilization, that is, the period from 2600 BC to 1900 BC, some people extend it by 100-200 years up or down, but this is the most accepted timeline of the mature civilization. If you also consider the rudimentary forms which are not that developed, not at their peak, then you can see that entire phase between 3500 BC to around 1600 BC, meaning the time when it started to build up and the time when it was completely declining, you can see that entire phase in these 2000 years. And if you try to go even further back, you might not have records from that time, say 11,000 BC, 12,000 BC. But it's not that there were no written records at that time, or that there was no language at that time, or that writing was not invented at that time. This does not mean that. It only means that you do not have those records yet. Of course, if you go back a million years, then obviously there was no writing at that time. At that time, humans were slowly learning to stand erect, learning to control fire, learning many other things. Clothing, this, that, writing, and all these things that you are seeing were not there. But humans had started creating paintings, moldings, and all these creative and crafty things. So, what do we learn from this? We learn from this that the period for which we have not yet found written records, we call it prehistoric in a general sense. This was about the timeline. So, this is what is being said here, that you study and try to understand social and cultural behavior in the proto-historic and prehistoric past. Now, it says, "Deals with such remains from the past society." On the basis of which records, data, previews, what have you found, based on which you are able to say, interpret something, and say that "Oh, I saw this thing here, I conclude that the people of this particular time, of this society, knew how to control fire, meaning they could cook, and they could do many other things." "People of this time must have learned to write." "People of this time must have learned to speak." So, a way of looking is being seen. This language is coming from shelter, food. What did they eat? What did they eat from animals? How will we know? Their remains. The site. We will study the site. Small technical words. By the way, we discussed this in a video on YouTube, Study IQ, in which we saw what are the different archaeological terms and we cleared your doubts there. So, you can refer to that as well if you want. It won't be a very long video, I think. But here also, I will explain those terms to you briefly. So, you are seeing that in such places where humans lived, animal bones are also found. So, this leads to two things. One is domestication of animals. Many types of animals that cannot be eaten are also present, so you know that they could be domesticated, and they were a part of their economy. And if you see marks on the bones or on any place, marks of injury, marks of arrows, which might have been made while hunting, or by shooting an arrow, or by catching the animal in any other way. So, from this, what do you know? That they were not raising them, not domesticating them, they had hunted them, brought them there, and eaten them. So, such elements are found. So, from this, you can interpret. So, this also tells about food. Sometimes pollen, you know pollen, it is very resistant to environmental changes. You might have read in 11th or 12th grade if you had biology, that there is a substance called sporopollenin, a chemical present in it, which makes it completely resistant to any kind of damage. Because of that, the life of pollen can last for many years. And palinological is a science within archaeology, by which you can date and tell. Like carbon dating, potassium-argon dating, various different forms of dating are present. On their basis, you can decide the timeline. Similarly, from pollen, you can also identify the pollen of which plant, which fruit, which vegetable. So, in that way, you can also find out about vegetarian diet, that kind of food. These are different methods. You can understand different things from tools. You also see the evolution of tools. Initially, when humans were in a rudimentary form, when they didn't have much understanding, they used to live on the banks of rivers, right? On the banks of rivers, because what could be more important than water for humans? That's where they used to shelter, such resources. Even there, they used to get fish and other things, their food was also abundant there. Their shelter was best there, and they were getting everything there. And when they looked at those stones, slowly over time, through evolution, using tools, they started making weapons, and started making multi-purpose tools in the form of those stones. Which you sometimes call hand axes, sometimes cleavers, sometimes scrapers, sometimes points, sometimes borers, sometimes gravers. In the upper period, when you go towards the Neolithic, you also see techniques with grinding and polishing. So, there is innovation, evolution at the technological level, at the level of tool technology. First, a rudimentary stone, with a little touching. Maybe first, you throw a stone. Then you think a little that if we sharpen the stone a bit, our hunting will also become easier. And if you have to scratch plants or something wooden, it will also become easier. So, you see multi-purpose tools. Slowly, it develops further, and they understand this. They learn this through practice, and over time, specialization of tools also starts. Some tools will be used for hunting, some tools might be for fishing, some implements might be used, some tools might be used in cooking, some tools might be used in making clothes or tearing animal meat, some tools might help you in butchering. Some tools might help you in camping. So, you also see specialization in tools. So, that's what is being said, that tools are used as archaeological records. Next, shelter. How can shelter give indications of anything? Proof or updates of anything? If you live in caves, then you are not just sitting there like a statue. You are performing activities there. They can be domestic, economic, social, religious. So, if there is a burial, then you know that this practice of burying started from this time. You see the practice of burying, many people do it in a crossed position, some people keep their head towards the back, some towards the front, some keep their arms folded on their chest. So, such practices are known. And if that practice is found in some other society, then you get an interrelation or you get to know that the cultural area was large. Even if it is far away from here, and it is found there too, then you get an extension of that culture. And you also get to know other things. If sometimes bodies are buried with grave goods, meaning some things are placed with them at the time of burial, they will put a pot, put some items inside the pot. From this, you interpret that this society or these people believed in life after death. So, you can interpret all these evidences. In shelters, you also see that if animals were killed and eaten, their bones were thrown inside. If it's near caves, then inside the caves, they leave the mouth of the caves. And whatever they eat, it is consumed, and after that, what do they do? They throw it away. They use it like a dustbin. So, it becomes a cultural deposit inside, accumulating one on top of the other. So, from this, you get a lot of information. About the diet of males, and animals that were eaten and consumed. So, if someone wants to debate that this solar animal, today it is considered a taboo to kill or do anything with it, it is considered a great sin. So, if you see that in those records, you find many remains of the same animal, meaning people were hunting and eating them. So, you know that this practice, which you see today, that some animals have been given a sacred status, that you cannot kill them. So, you will say that this came in a more recent period, much later, because in that society, you are going back a thousand years, 1.5 thousand years, so people were eating animals, meaning there were no such religious beliefs at that time. So, in this way, archaeology is helpful in your interpretation and in establishing a correlation between the present and the past. Social behavior, you also get to know social behavior. Burying someone with grave goods, doing all these things, what is this? This is a final aspect of culture, a behavior of yours, isn't it? Otherwise, who cares if someone dies? A person dies, dies, dies, leaves them and moves on, or throws them somewhere. But that's not the case, right? You see someone burying with rituals, so from that, you get to know about social behavior, social patterns, practices. Sometimes, Denisovan populations are found, different species are found before us. And between them, you see that even 200,000-year-old specimens, 200,000-year-old, and flowers were offered to them where they were buried. In Shanidar, there are excellent findings, and we discussed it there, I think. And there, people offered flowers. How do we know that flowers were offered? Pollen analysis was done, as we talked about, right? So, pollen was found there. You analyzed the pollen, and you found that it is of jasmine or of this thing. So, from that, you know that oh, flowers were offered here. In many places, the heads of bears are placed in a particular direction, crossed. And along with that, some religious things are also associated. So, you know that here.

Some religious, then the concept of total or black magic might have been a problem between them, so in this way, you see evidence in a historical sense, collect it, read it, and then interpret what its main reasons and significance could be. The next line is saying these remains, other terms. Now, these remains that you find, you call them, you call them artifacts. We have also discussed what an artifact is; sometimes there is confusion, even for archaeologists in the initial phase, they used to be artifacts. An artifact is basically anything on which you can say that human action can be proven, human agency, or human workmanship. Whatever object is found in any record, you look at it and say that there is a tip made here, it is filled with ink, its entire structure has been made, it is not natural. It is not natural. You see this board, and if it remains in this condition after 500 years, and whoever can understand what it might have been, they will understand that someone had worked on it. So, when you establish human agency, human crafting, or workmanship in any evidence found in an archaeological record, with the collectible, you will say that we will call it an artifact. On the opposite side, there are many things that cannot be attributed to human workmanship. Similarly, a question used to arise, which was called this. These were stones that were believed by the forest dwellers to have been made by humans, and their date was very old. So people said, "Oh, humans were making weapons about 2,500,000 years ago, or 5,000,000 years ago." Later, when many archaeologists said that it is not necessary that the mark on it, the marks made, the fact that it has become pointed, is due to humans. Sometimes, due to the flow of the river or due to collision, friction, or collision, such marks appear. So, how will you say that something is a non-artifactual unit and something is an artifact or not? You take the help of the phenomena of patination and memory of nature, that nature has no memory. So, anything that is happening through nature, it is said that it is through nature, that a river was flowing, some pebbles, stones collided with each other, and such marks appeared. Humans did not make it. So, nature has no memory, so it cannot repeat itself. That is, if on the left side of something, you see a point here, and there is a particular mark on the left side, and next to it is another stone, on which that mark is not there, on the third stone also the mark is not there, they are all different from each other. What does that tell you? You will say that it is of nature. This action is of nature. Why? Because nature has no memory, so it cannot repeat things. Whereas, when you find human tools, you will see if a hand axe was found there, it will have a particular shape or something, maybe a trapezoid, or it can be triangular in shape. You find stones like this, some quadrangular stones that appear like human hearts. So, they all have a particular shape, and the surrounding stones have similar designs. What are you saying from this? That the same design has been repeated by someone, it has been generally made, hence it is an artifact. And because nature has no memory, it rubbed one stone from the left once, then the flow went somewhere else, collision happened from another side, so it became right instead of left, left instead of right. Therefore, there is no memory, so repetition does not happen, hence they are non-artifacts. What happens from that? Reconstruction of the past. From that, you interpret the old society, their activities, their behavior, bringing it to life. What is being discussed next? Cultural evolution. Where are you studying? Primatology, you are looking at it. Paleontology, you are looking at it. You are seeing the progression of humans there. Here, you are seeing the progression of prehistoric culture and society. First, there was culture, then within culture, lower, middle, upper. After that, Mesolithic comes. Mesolithic, Neolithic societies are coming. You call them iron, and what are the different characteristics of each stage? What is seen? What is a particular thing? What is an artifact? Another important term that you should know is associated with it. Remains, they can usually be called, but it is not necessary that they are everywhere. Hence, sites have been divided into different domains. We have also discussed this. You can watch the video if you want to know in detail. For example, if humans are living somewhere, what will you call it? This site is a habitation site. Someone was inhabiting there. You will call it a site. Where there is raw material or mining, you will call it a mining site, or raw materials are being extracted to make something. You are talking about the Nagpur Plateau, so in Jharkhand, you see rich natural resources. So, from here, you extract the necessary things, the raw materials, to prepare the final product. So, such sites become what you can call cultural sites. You have understood the classification and its function, this whole basic concept. Layering is the most important. Everything else is in our live batch, where you get everything thoroughly through spoon-feeding with their hand notes, lecture notes, PPT material, resources, latest updates, and news, question answers, model questions, previous year questions, all this you are getting there. And now we have less time, and even in this less time, we have already crossed 30 minutes. If you talk about a good segment, then 30 minutes of it have passed. Your basics have been cleared. Now, based on this, we can easily take you to what different things will be said. First of all, if you talk here, it is about chronology. They talk about chronology. They say understanding chronology is very important. If you understand chronology, many things become clear. So, chronologically, we will also understand. What is chronology? The sequence of anything. Culture, so its sequence. Human society, its sequence. How is the progression going? Who came first, who came later? How do you know that? You know it through dating. Dating is not that kind of dating. There is confusion about that. Anyway, February has passed. The dating that will happen now, you will have April Fool. So, it is better to focus on academic dating rather than that type of dating. So, here you see that dating is being discussed. Dating is a process by which you can find out the time of anything, of which period it might belong. That period, what might have been the period? And why do you want to know? You want to know so that you can tell the progression, who came first, who came later, which thing is more advantageous, which society is more progressive, and which thing is less advanced. And you can put it in a cultural sequence. So, dating is divided into different methods and different types. One is relative dating, and the other is what you must have heard of, absolute dating. What is relative dating? Before knowing this, let's know a principle, some chronological or dating principles. First is the principle of superposition. If you start digging somewhere, when you dig a particular space, imagine you are in your house. Go outside your house and start digging with a shovel or an axe or anything, with an implement. What you see first, you will call it the earlier layer. Suppose this is a particular plot, and you start digging through it. You started digging. So, you dig in different layers. First, you dug up to here, then up to here, then up to here. You dig like this. These are layers. You are looking at it strategically. This is one, this is two, this is three, this is four, this is five, and further on. So, in this, you will say that the layer that is at the top, the stratum that is at the top, you will call it the most recent, the newest. Because what you see at the very bottom, this principle tells you, the principle of superposition, that the older things will remain at the bottom, and new formations, new layers, will come on top. Deposition starts happening on top of it. New cultural zones start forming. So, this fifth one, you will call it the oldest set or layer. Or at this time, you are not just finding soil in all these layers. If you dig here, you will find different things. Many times, you see that usually in front of houses, now I don't know, in old times, coins used to be found, money used to be found. Sometimes you used to see something made of iron. So, why does that happen? Because they used to lie there, fall down, and then soil covered them. Then a tree grew somewhere, or something happened. This happens over a period of time. Sometimes bones are found. It is possible that an animal died there and was buried. Someone buried it there. CID people often go, right? They dig up the entire ground, and the last is found. So, in this way, you find something everywhere. These green ones that we are making here now, these are artifacts. Let's understand them first. They are artifacts or evidence. They can be anything. Let's say these green ones, we call them artifacts. And both are used. When you are talking about dating, in this way, you will say that the artifacts found in layer or stratum five are older than those found in the first layer or first stratum. So, the one at the very top, in the layer, the closest to you, is the most recent. And what you find at the very bottom as you dig, it's a very simple thing. And you study this within these two principles: superposition and stratigraphy, the principle that is here, or principles, as you call them. I hope this part is also clear. Now, when you study dating, dating is of two types: one is relative, and the other is absolute. Relative, as the term suggests, in relationship to others, in comparison to others. You have two children in your class. And both fail the exam. Your teacher says both topped. So, you will see, or both get distinction marks. Usually, 85% is considered a distinction. So, you say both have distinction, or both have failed. So, the criterion for failing is 33% in most places. So, you know that both children scored below 33%, or they have distinction, so they scored above 85%. But whose score is less? Suppose one is Ram, and the other is Shyam. So, both Ram and Shyam failed. So, if Ram scored 31 and Shyam scored 29, then relatively, you will say that Ram has scored well, although he failed, but still Ram has scored better than Shyam. This is a relation, a comparison. In comparison to each other. If you talk about distinction, suppose Ram scored 86 and Shyam scored 92. So, again, Shyam has... In this way, you are comparing. So, in archaeology too, you say you are dating. You have found both these artifacts. Now, between these two, which one is older or newer? You are being told. You cannot tell the exact date. You cannot tell the exact time period. You can only stress, you can only make out which one is older, which one is not that old. You found a few, or five or ten, and by comparing them, you are telling. You cannot say that this is 2000 years old, 3000, or 4000. That is relative dating for you. You can date it. In comparison to each other. And this is also simple. How will you say something is relatively older? If you find two things, apply the principle of superposition. One is found in layer two, and the other in layer four. So, you will say the one in layer four is older. You cannot tell what year layer four is from, or what period it is from. It was from an earlier period, but you can definitely tell which one is newer and which one is older. In contrast to this, there is absolute dating. In absolute dating, you can find out the time period. Exact date. In most absolute dating, you cannot get the exact date. You do not get it. But you get a time frame. You can tell the time frame of lower, middle, upper, or a glacial period. You can say that this fossil was there in this particular period. In absolute dating, you see different types of dating. It takes more than a full class to understand just absolute dating. Dating itself, I think, takes around one and a half to two lectures, meaning around 3-5 hours are spent on it, depending on the depth we are doing. If you talk about absolute dating, then you have the potassium-argon method, you have the carbon dating method. There are multiple types of thermal energy. Many things radiate thermal energy in a way. Among them, you see luminescence, that is, light. When you heat them, they produce light, emit light, and based on that, you date. They remain there. In this way, multiple types of dating techniques are present under absolute dating. Annual rings. Those who have studied botany will understand this. Annual rings, when you talk about secondary growth, the formation of annual rings, based on that, you can talk about the period. When you talk about paleontology, soil analysis, you read the soil, you understand it. So, all these come under dating, and based on this, you locate them within the time period. Next, after dating is done, now comes the point of cultural evolution. Here, you can explain it in two ways, or explain it in two ways. What you see in Paper 1, that is under general archaeology. In both papers, we always say that the special thing about anthropology is that it is present in both papers, but there is a slight difference. In Paper 1, it is discussed in a general sense. What is culture? Mesolithic, what is Mesolithic? Neolithic, Chalcolithic culture. In Paper 1, we are studying general things. I think you have understood this. Let's move directly to cultural evolution, to understand the different stages. We often say that a very good thing about the anthropology syllabus is that it tells you what to study. If you just look at general archaeology, there are 50 types of rules and principles based on which you study. There are different types of artifacts. You also have to study branches of archaeology. Even now, we can briefly tell you. If you talk about archaeology in general, even here, on this slide, archaeology also comes in different types. One is general archaeology, which you usually see. Based on notification, based on principles, in a theoretical aspect. It has gone through different times. First, there is a historical period where things are just found and read. What is it? It is collected and kept in a museum or somewhere for preservation. So, there was a historical approach, the early approach that is seen. After that, a procedural approach came. That is, how anything is. First, you are talking about the historical approach, where you are just finding out what. What have you discovered? What thing is it? What was found? So, initially, people were very inquisitive. In the early period, anything that is found, any branch that is developing, in its initial phase, things are limited to just what. Why was it found? How was it found? And if what was found is known, then it is preserved and kept in a museum or a gallery. So, there you get to know what. The authors of the procedural approach, the founding fathers, started trying to find out how. Pottery is one thing. Between these, you see 10 types of evolutionary patterns. NB PW, Northern Black Pottery, you see. PGW, Painted Grey ware type of pottery. All these are quite recent. You are talking about the pottery of the post-Vedic, Vedic, post-Vedic, later Vedic periods. Before this, around the Chalcolithic period, around 2000 BC. Indus Valley is also going on. So, in all these, you have GC P pottery.

Geometric shapes are seen, and on the quarters of the Indus Valley, you are also seeing geometric shapes, okay? Some are for utility, meaning how pots, pitchers, and vessels were made so that they could be used for some purpose. Some were made for storage, to keep grains, water, or milk in them, so they were utilitarian. Then there are the deluxe ones, which you can call them, they are designed aesthetically, friends. Often, flower pots are kept in homes, so they are made in that way. They can also be made based on purpose. Archaeological investigation tries to understand how these things were made, how they came into being. Behind everything, there is a purpose. There are also tools. So, I thought that those who study tools here, in history, studied tools, they figured out what this is. This is a handaxe, a type of tool. We will study it later, so it's a handaxe. Put this here in this segment. Not a handaxe, another one was found. What is this? This is a blade tool from the Neolithic period. It has been polished and ground. Put this here separately. What did you find third? What is this? This is a micro-tool, found in the visual. Put this separately. So, in a way, you figured it out and kept it as a collection in that way. When it comes to output, you think about how it must have been made at that time. You can make it very easily today. Today you are making missiles, guns, Brahmastra, and who knows what else. You are doing S4. So, in this way, this also becomes a specialization within archaeology, where you are trying to make things by breaking stones with stones, without any resources. You are going into primitive conditions and seeing how people made it in old times. So, all those things come here. It studies things at a cognitive, that is, mental level, and it studies the things of those things. It is also called cognitive and interpretative. Meaning, the difference between them. Here, in five places, 50 different types of pottery were found. Some have triangular shapes, some have circular shapes, some have something, some were used to keep grains, some were not. Some were for decoration, some. So, why is there so much variety between them? What could have been the purpose? So, you determine the purpose of everything there. You found a handaxe, so what did they do with the handaxe? What did they do? Hunting animals. Making clothes from animal skins. Scraping off animal skins to make clothing for themselves. Trees, branches, they are scraping them off, extracting something from them, breaking them, cutting them. Breaking branches or twigs, or fighting with each other to kill an animal, or just for decoration. It is very important. So, there are many things here that we will look at in the introductory part of at least two to three lectures, just to see the principles and concepts. Nothing is wasted. Next, we are talking about cultural evolution. We talked about that, so that has also been explained to you. Just like we were saying, sometimes there was a deviation, right? We were talking about something else, and then some other information comes, and then we start talking about it, and then we forget where we started. We started from here, that in the syllabus of anthropology, this point is often counted. It is well-structured. It has been asked what you need to study. Chronology has been asked, you have studied dating, and after that, it is telling you to study the outline. In paleolithic culture, it asked about paleolithic, mesolithic, neolithic, chalcolithic. Here, it has specifically told you copper, bronze, and iron. If it hadn't said so, we would have gone into great depth here too, based on the domain or evolution, how many are there, and you see many other ways. There is settlement archaeology, which studies human settlements. Why is humans living there? What convenience do they have? Are there more water resources? Are there more food resources? So, it is trying to understand the entire human settlement. Anthropology tries to know everything. Where the records are lying, you are reading the present animal records there. So, zooarchaeology and archaeobotany, these two things are trying to know and understand things at the faunal and floral level. You find some plants there, you find animal bones. So, you are seeing all these things. There are many specializations within archaeology, and we study all of them in detail. If we teach you archaeological anthropology, but here we are closing in on the UPSC syllabus. It is only telling you the positives. So, this definition becomes very important. So, the first thing it has asked in this definition is about Paleolithic societies. Paleolithic culture. Paleo means old. Okay. Stone is used as a word for stone. Okay. So, where you are seeing old stone age tools, you can call it. Next slide, where you will see culture. What is this? It has told about history. Then you know what prehistoric is. Prehistoric was the term. Who used it first? In 1851, it was Daniel Wilson. 1851. Tell me, if you have watched the theories video well, what else was happening at this time? You can tell in the comment section. If you can tell correctly without the help of anyone, or any books, or the resources on our Telegram channel, then it's very good. It means your preparation is going well. In 1851, something related to social, related to theoretical concepts, if you remember anything related to that, tell me. If you don't remember, I will tell you. 1851 was the time period when, 10 years later, you see the prehistoric era. Lewis Henry Morgan's very big book is considered. And in this period, you are also seeing Morgan's book, "Ancient Society." If you go to '71, then in '71, you see Lewis Henry Morgan's book, and along with that, Morgan's book came, which you call "Systems of Consanguinity and Affinity of the Human Family." So, you should relate all these things, all these dates, and keep practicing them because it is very important in the introduction. If you don't mention all these things, whose work it is, where he mentioned it, in which year, and what the name of this scholar is, the introduction is very good. Here you get help by mentioning three things there and then generally talking about that thing and its idea. So, you see, Daniel Wilson first used this in 1851 in his work, in his own work, in his publication, which you call "The Archaeology and Prehistoric Annals of Scotland." After that, after that, you see who popularized it. So, Sir John Lubbock is very famous. Okay. You take the name of John Lubbock. Okay. Along with him, there are many other people. Some of them have given the Three Age System. Okay. The first new society you found, or the Stone Age, or you talk about the Iron Age society, Bronze Age society, so all these people are giving many such classifications. We will do one thing, who coined what term, which classification they gave, we will provide it in a summarized form on our Telegram channel, "Archaeology." So, John Lubbock's "Pre-historic Times" was published in 1865. "The Origin and Development of the Human Race Prior to the Invention of Script." It traces from before the invention of script. One is undiscovered, that is still quite recent. When it was not invented at all, when you study Homo Erectus, it comes even before Homo Erectus, Australopithecus, study that. It goes even before that. Study the first hominids, study Ardipithecus, Ramapithecus. When you study all these things, which are tracing back from around 7.1 million years ago. 7.1 million years ago means approximately 70 years. 1 million years is 10, so approximately 70 lakh years ago, things that were present are being talked about. At that time, humans couldn't even walk properly, meaning they couldn't walk on two legs. So, you are seeing the talk of that time. So, you have read that it was studying human societies and cultural development from before there was no script. Secondly, the content and methodology of the subject until recent times was called prehistory, or prehistoric archaeology. But in recent times, not 10-15 years ago, recently, it has been renamed as archaeological anthropology. And that is what we talk about, that there is a quite significant difference between archaeology and archaeological anthropology. Lewis Binford is telling you point-wise. It has been called by different names in many places. It is called "Anthropology of the Dead." Somewhere it is called "Ethnography of Extinct Societies." What does ethnography mean? Recording of culture. You go to their society, observe them, note it in your diary. How are their marriages happening? Is their family joint or nuclear? What type of family is it? Their religion, what type? You write this information. You have written about it. So, it is called the study of extinct societies. It is called the study of extinct cultures. It is also called the past of culture, anthropology of the past. And simply, the study of human past based upon the past material objects recovered by systematic exploration and excavations, which are classified, analyzed, described, and interpreted based on various scientific methods and theories. Archaeology has been defined by Brandfon. See, I have kept this deliberately and highlighted it. We often talk about errors in sources. This is a very standard government source from which I have used this. And I have used it purposefully here to tell you that these are some of the world's best and greatest archaeologists. Brandfon, and his books like "People of Earth" are very famous books. So, it is one of the most popular. Just like you talk about Shri Ram, in general, for a textbook, it is ten times more famous than him. And his name is seen incorrectly in government sources in India, written as "Fagan." So, I have done this only to tell you that if there are so many mistakes in government recent sources, then think about how many mistakes there will be in books recommended by toppers and other institutes, because they are from very regional, local, and somewhat cheap publishing houses. Cheap means not charging much, publishing books cheaply, because all anthropology books are published there. That is why there are many errors. Errors in dates, many times errors in concepts. Sometimes you see that the author's name is put in someone else's work. That is why we say that you have to be under the right guidance if you are taking the path of anthropology, specifically. If you are taking anthropology, it is best to have a guide. And when you are with such a person who has seen and understood all the sources, only then can they tell you where to read the correct information. How to report the text. How they call it. He called it a special form of anthropology that uses material remains to study extinct human societies. In this way, his definition. This entire time period has been divided into ages, and we have used this diagram. There are many diagrams of G.T.S. We had done another one on this. Do Hindu calendars and Hindu scriptures tell us about the geological time scale or explain? You will find this video in the Anthropology playlist. In it, we talked about how time is divided in Hinduism, how it is divided from Manvantara, Kalpa, Yuga, in different ways. The time scale is also doing things. When you talk about avatars, different avatars of Vishnu, how they are explaining all these things in an evolutionary way. When did these fish come? When did amphibians come? When did mammals come? Finally, when did humans evolve? So, this diagram explains this to you. So, you see, at the very top, there is an archaeologist who is standing here, looking at implements or tools. Meaning, they dug, and by digging, they are getting artifacts in sequence. If you are not able to see clearly, I think you can see it. But if you cannot see, then don't worry. Go to the Anthropology Decoder Telegram channel. You will find this uploaded there. We send the material there on the same day this video is uploaded. But otherwise also, I think you can go to the space to find the material. You are seeing here, on the left side, everything is shown. What is this? A dinosaur-like fossil is seen. So, this is the dinosaur period. No relation to humans or animals. Life began with plankton. And finally, the bottom stage, our board is slightly covering it, that is what? That is the formation of the Earth, which is counted approximately 4.6 billion years ago. 4.6 billion years. 2.4. You are seeing this stage. And in this way, you are seeing that the first era, Mesozoic, Cenozoic, has been particularly divided into epochs. You are seeing that here. The Cenozoic era is divided into epochs. You are seeing the Holocene, Pleistocene. So, the Holocene is called the most recent. It is called the most recent, which started around 11,000 to 11,500 years ago. Before this, you are seeing this specific period, in which most of the concentration of our archaeology is studied. This is coming under the Cenozoic era. Within the Cenozoic era, there is a time which you call the Pleistocene, or the Pleistocene. The Holocene is just before it. And you are talking about around 2.6. Here in your diagram, it is given incorrectly. Similarly, it is given incorrectly in many other sources. The latest research indicates that the Pleistocene epoch started around 2.6 million years ago. Here you are seeing 1.8 million years ago, and it ended when the Holocene started, around 11,000 years ago, which is written as around 10,000 years. So, that is 10,000 years. There is not much difference of 1000 years, as much as the difference between 1.8 and 2.6. The difference of 1.8 million years and 2.6 million years, think about how big it is yourself. Tell me in the comment section. So, you are seeing that the Cenozoic era has been divided into different epochs, in which your major epochs are Holocene, Pleistocene, Pliocene, Miocene, Oligocene, and Paleocene. Further classification of this is also very extensive, but its representation was a bit better, so we have used this G.T.S. here. So, in this way, you are seeing a cultural evolution in a chronological fashion through the agency of the geological time scale. And in this, when you talk about the Pleistocene, you are talking about all the paleolithic cultures. You see all of them there. The latest cultures, the Iron Age cultures, the Megalithic cultures, the Neolithic cultures, are happening around the Holocene. In the Holocene period, around 10-11 thousand years ago, you have Neolithic and all subsequent periods, even the Indus Valley Civilization, and further all things that are coming in Indian society or globally, you put them in the Holocene. And the Lower Paleolithic, Upper Paleolithic is seen in the Pleistocene. For example, the earliest evidence we currently have in India dates back to 1.5 million years ago, 15 lakh years ago. Globally, if you talk about India, because the sites are in a hot and humid region, and where settlements were, they are mostly seen in the form of riverine deposits. So, not many fossils are preserved there, they get washed out in the flow of the river. It is very misty, you see very wet regions, so they are not very dry areas. That is why in Africa, you will see such archaeological records on a much better footing. It used to be like that there. So, globally, you see two types of conditions. One is ice, and the other is that the entire earth is covered with inches of ice. In other regions, like India, you see both things. Meaning, a lot.

It was raining inside, so where you see America, you see the entire region of Europe, and in that entire northern belt, you are seeing the formation of ice extension. And in India, both things are happening. But if you go to the South, you will see glaciation happening there. In Africa too, you are mostly seeing provision. In this way, two things are happening there and continue to happen until the Holocene arrives, until then the climate cannot stabilize in this way. Rainfall extremes. Now, let's talk about ice formation. In this way, if you look at these three, you can lock them all up and keep them. That's why I am covering the basics for you first. If the basics are understood, then the rest of the data is a bit easily available, you will find it, and the concepts will be so easy. You don't get them in physical anthropology. That is important. First of all, in your course, in Paper One, you are given color. So, what does paleolithic mean? Look here, it is clearly written. Earlier, we explained old and lithic. We just said it is used for stone tools. It comes from Greek, and the Greek word means ancient, old, or ancient stone. Lithic means stone. Old stone or ancient stone. It refers to the period of human development, the ancient stone age that preceded the stone age. The third and final stage of the stone age. The stone age is divided into different parts, which students from Hindi medium can call "Pashan Kal" in Hindi. It is called Pashan, stone age. The stone age time period is also seen divided into different divisions. First, what do you see here? Second, Mesolithic, and third, Neolithic. Within the periodic divisions, there are also subdivisions. Upper, Middle, Lower. So, in this way, what was first, you are calling it Old Stone Age. Mesolithic, you are calling it Middle Stone Age. And Neolithic Age, you are calling it Late Stone Age, or you are seeing it as the final stage. Neolithic or Late Stone Age. Trails of man about three million years ago. This is what we said, we are not able to do it correctly in India, and many fossils and evidence are not available. That's why in India, you date it to 1.5 million years ago, but if you go in a global sense, it is from 3 million years ago. That's where you are seeing things happening. Today, what is going to touch you in Africa. The Acheulean stone tools found, which correspond to the Lower Paleolithic or even earlier periods, are dating back to around 4 million years ago. And one of them is at a site where it was found. I think we also put its information in our Telegram group. Okay, we have data of 3.2, 3.6. Now this is pushing it back to even 4 million years ago. Stone tools are also made based on different industries. What is it? I would suggest that it is not possible here to explain what different industries are, what tools are, what techno-complexes are, what assemblages are. For this, you should definitely watch our video on archaeology, "Problematic Terms in Archaeology." It will take half an hour just for that. It is better suited that you go and watch that once, or watch this. Once you understand that. What is an assemblage? We have briefly covered it in the side. We have not covered assemblages, what are industries, what is civilization, what is culture. What is a techno-complex? If you have studied all this, then it is good. We have seen different industries, like Oldowan. It was considered the earliest stone industry until now, but some evidence has come that takes it even before this. In this, Australia is named. The place where it was first found is its type site, and based on that, its naming has also been done. For example, Oldowan is a site in Africa, in Tanzania. If you go to the region, you will find Olduvai Gorge, or Olduvai Gorge, as it is called. The name of the site has been given after the fossils found there, and the name of the industry has also been given after it. Similarly, it is seen in Australia. After this, you mostly find it in a place. It will be formed after its name. You are seeing this kind of classification. What is it? In society, people, simple people, you will not find much development. Tools are also very simple. You use them in a utilitarian form. It is not specific. You are seeing multi-purpose tools. Here you are seeing the first point, simple tool use, making very simple tools, making cleavers, which you call chopper and chopping tools. Then, moving forward, scrapers were made. So, slowly, they are making different things. From Lower Paleolithic to Upper Paleolithic. Population distribution is found all over the world. It is not that it is only in Africa or America. You are seeing global dispersal by this time. The third thing is that the population is also growing, due to which different types of control of fire will also be learned later. Along with this, they started using stone tools. All these things. The population is estimated to be around one million. If you look at the period of one lakh years, it is considered the emergence of speech. By this time, he had started verbal speech communication. Many people also associate the process of fire control with this period. What does human finally controlling fire mean? One is that fire has started somewhere in the forest. Fire can start in different ways. It can start from friction, or due to very hot climate, or lightning. When did humans learn to control it? Many people are seeing the traces of this, especially in the Lower Paleolithic. The records you see are around 1 million years old, whereas if you talk about the period, it has gone back even beyond 3.6 million years. So, if you go to South Africa, up to 1.5 million years ago, you find a place called Wonderwerk, a cave formation, where you are seeing this. Similarly, if you go to a slightly more recent period, half of this period, there are many such places in China, one is Guddia, where you are also seeing it. In India, this is very recent. In India, you see evidence of controlled fire from 30-40-50 thousand years ago. We are not specializing now because this is a general paper, the general anthropology part within Paper One. Because time is short, we are explaining both things together. That along with the general, you also connect it with India. Because it is very difficult to cover everything in 90 minutes separately. So, you are seeing that the same thing that was found here 1.5 million years ago, its traces in India are found from 45 to 60-65 thousand years ago. A place near Allahabad called Belan Valley. You are seeing this thing there. You have read it. Later, slowly, Acheulean tools also started being used, which are seen as erect and walking. After this, you talk about Middle and Upper Paleolithic, meaning after that period. Middle Upper Paleolithic, before Mesolithic. We are talking about the divisions within the Mesolithic. So, first you saw Homo erectus, and after that, what do you see? Neanderthals. When you read the literature, you see Neanderthal. Anatomically modern humans, which you call Homo sapiens. They do not come, but you have seen modern humans at that stage. The next stage you have is the Mesolithic cultural stage. What are the criteria, what are the characteristics of Mesolithic? Because many things like pottery formation are usually associated with the Neolithic. People started making pottery, and its starting form, crude form, not with such specialized, not with such good finishing, but simple form. Pottery is seen in Mesolithic. The practice of burying someone, these rituals, are usually associated with the Neolithic period. But evidence shows that in crude form, you are seeing it starting in Mesolithic. You are seeing a kind of junction. Between the two. Secondly, people started using the slash and burn technique. They started using it there. Establishment of farming communities during their, during this particular period. Farming communities are now seen coming. That is, humans are moving towards settlement. This is not happening in Paleolithic. In the previous slide, you saw humans as nomadic. Humans are not staying in one place. They are moving on. Hunting, because they don't have resources. If they stay in one place, what will they do? How will their economy run? What will they eat, what will they drink? Their concentration is mostly on hunting and gathering. So, wherever there is a resource, they take it. They are nomadic. They do not settle in one place. And settlement structures. Humans started spending a little more time in one place. Spending a lot of time there. So, you are seeing the process of nature or economy growing. It is starting. Next, you talk about humans starting to learn to use domesticated animals. For food, and for other purposes, it is being used there. You are seeing domestication starting here. Next, you are talking about the domestication of dogs. It is an important thing you are seeing. That thing is continuing even today. And when did it start? You are seeing its start at this time. Permanent settlement. They were not making permanent settlements there. Permanent settlement or you are seeing it again. [Music] People were hunters. Hunters started storing food. Storage of food. When you solve its problem, only then can you settle. That thing is seen starting there. So, it reduced. The formation of ice caps. This is starting when your ice is usually melting. At the junction of that. So, when this is starting, the glaciers have melted. You are seeing more water. Water coverage has increased. When it increased, obviously, reliance on aquatic animals increases. Animal land. So, here, the nature of conflict also increases. Now that resources have increased, there will be fights for resources. Fights for food, fights for animals, fights for land. Who will live where? Territorial sense is also seen starting from here. Which is continuing till today. Sanitation. We just talked about it in the upper part. And depending on the requirement, their availability. This means they are staying in one place. People were both sanitary and. In a way, non-nomadic, or you are talking about sanitary and nomadic. So, they are moving and staying. That's why the term partial nomadism or partial sedentary is used. Because they are not completely just moving, and they are not completely settling in one place forever. That's why it is seen as an intermediate or junction. Next, you talk about the New Stone Age or Late Stone Age. Call it Neolithic. Many things have come here. Gordon Childe, an important scholar. You might be remembering their name. You might have heard their name and their work somewhere. Tell us in the comment section if you remember correctly. Neolithic, you see the term "important scholar revolution." In that way, the agricultural revolution. Now, what does he say? What are the things you are seeing? First, agriculture. You have done agriculture. Second, you will also see pottery here. If you have done both these things correctly, agriculture and pottery, then your nomadism is over. You can stay in one place. Obviously, if you are doing agriculture, you have to stay in one place and do it. There are so many processes, sowing, harvesting, growing. All these processes are intensive, time-consuming, and labor-consuming. And it's not like you sowed today and got it tomorrow, and you took it and left the day after. You are engaged in that activity throughout the year. So, your nomadism ends, and you start living a sedentary life. And you also have pottery, so you can store things. Utilitarian nature of pottery. In it, grains, barley, whatever things are being kept there, whatever things they are cultivating. So, they can also store them. That's why nomadism is seen to be completely ending at the time of Neolithic. At that time, people started settling. Tools have also advanced significantly. Axes, adzes, many things that we deal with when we teach you in in-depth lectures. How they are made. We are also telling you. The tool-making process. You are saying everything is weapons. Many modern weapons like harpoons, etc., that you see here, whether written or not, things like harpoons, specialized tools are made. They are used for fishing. Humans have also made weapons for warfare. Next, you talk about housing. They started living in houses, so the concept of housing also comes. The concept of shelter. Completely. First, we saw that they were near rivers. Then we saw that they were living at the mouth of caves, the front part of the caves. So, they have also developed housing. Next, housing started. All these things came. Technology has improved significantly. And community life has started here. A kind of relationship between people is strengthening here. I hope this Neolithic period is seen. Metalworking technology, if you are talking about it. Next, the economy was based on subsistence farming, hunting, stock raising, and fishing. In all these things. Like tools, it's not just that. In the economy too, you are seeing multiple dimensions. Specialization of pottery is also seen here. Pots with openings cut in the walls, which may have been used for burning incense. It is also seen being used for this purpose. If you talk in Indian context, in Chalcolithic, you see many. If we write here, we cannot tell in 19 minutes. And if you look at the names, you see classification. You see the Ahar-Banas culture. You see many such local cultures there. And there are different varieties of local cultures. Each has some special feature. At that time, bricks of a particular form were used, and elsewhere, some other form. Somewhere, pottery of one type, elsewhere. So, pottery, bricks, and many such things on the basis of which this entire India has been classified. Finally, when you are talking, the period of iron. Along with that, you are seeing another period. The Iron Age. Iron started being used as a tool. Iron took precedence here, like copper was taking precedence here. And along with that, you are seeing Megalithic cultures coinciding. What is Megalithic culture? We just talked about the term "lithic" being used for stone. And "mega" you know means something very big, very huge, very large. For that. So, Megalithic means very large stones were used there. For what purpose? For their religious relief, for communal life, for erecting. If you talk about India, there is a place called Adichanallur, a place called Utur, a place called Aihem Palli in South India. Even if you go to the Northeast, the Khasis, these tribes, you see all this in Meghalaya, Nagaland. Those very large stones, structures like this. There are many places in the North too. And the density in the North is less compared to the South and Northeast. So, you see this all over India. Erecting very large stones there, forming them. Like you see on the road, the signboards used, on which the distance is written, that a particular city is this far, Delhi is this far, Mumbai is this far. You know that. Which you call milestones. So, in this form, in this shape, you will see large stones being erected. What do you call them? Monoliths. Secondly, you see stone circles, cists. You talk about dolmens, dolmenoids, you also see dolmenoid cists. And a special, very important thing is called a sarcophagus. What happens in a sarcophagus? Structures are made in the shape of an organism. A stone or anything with four legs. They have given it the form of a human.

So, in this way, there is iron there, okay? If you talk about the proto-historic side, it is a very big topic in itself. From different sides, you know that in the early period, the very first one found was Harappa, hence it is sometimes called the Harappan Civilization. It is a very big site, a well-developed site from the mature period, and it is the first site found. That's why you call it the Harappan Civilization. Along with Harappa, you see Mohenjo-daro, and a famous site like Lothal. You get to see Lothal, okay? You are seeing Dholavira. In this way, multiple sites that you will not find throughout India. There is a reason for that. If you open up the civilization, it extends to the extreme north, even to the regions of Afghanistan, okay? You get the entire region of Alamgirpur in UP. It goes down to the Gujarat-Maharashtra belt. So, its entire geographical extent is divided into phases: this is the mature phase, this is the declining phase, and this is the beginning phase. The Indus Valley Civilization is well-marketed. You are seeing notifications, okay? You are getting implements of different types. When we talk about societies from other places, civilizations, I talk about the Sumerian Civilization. You are seeing trade relationships with it. So, every place, every site has its own specialty. And like Kalibangan, okay? If you are studying each place in detail, then when we are going to study it within the course, and that too soon, there will be no much delay. The course is starting in two days. So, those who have not enrolled yet, they can use our code ASLI V US LIVE and get enrolled in the batches starting on the 21st of April. We also have limited seats for this because this time we have also added a test series. And when you are conducting a test series, you don't have a very big scope for evaluation. It's not like you can evaluate copies of 300 people. You can do it within a limited time, but that time might be when you are preparing for the next Mains after seeing one. Then those 300 copies. Therefore, we have limited the number of people we can accommodate. The nature of civilization, its decline, you read theories on it. You study the Indus Valley Civilization in different types: social life, cultural life, religious life, economic life, trade, communication. It's one unit, like your 6 units in Paper 1 are on theories. It's a single unit, and how much time does it take? It takes about a month. So, similarly, this 1.1 in Paper 2, "Evaluation of Indian Culture and Civilization," is one unit, and it takes a lot of time. After this, you talk about Paper 1.1, then 1.2 is your Paleolithic Anthropology, evidence from India. So, in India, we talked about evidence, it is found very rarely. Fossils are also not seen much. And the very famous fossil you get to see is the Narmada Man. It is in a place called Hathnora in Madhya Pradesh. There is a prominent Paleolithicologist, or you can say a scholar, his name is Arun Sonakia. He is no more. Arun Sonakia, around the 1980s, around the time of India Gandhi, around that period. The exact year, you check, I don't remember. Around 1980, this is I think '82, '82. So, it was found there. So, this becomes a very debated feature. That's why, on the basis of Narmada, here we talk about the Shivaliks and the Narmada basin, the different geographical regions where the fossils found are anatomically you have to explain what they are. You are seeing anthropological evidence. And based on that feature, how do you classify that fossil? You say that such an old human entity is possible. Many people call it anatomically modern Homo sapiens. Its significance is reduced. Now, many people who are researching it are saying that it is Homo heidelbergensis. So, this debate continues. The forms are at the anatomical level because you have to see which feature and say which genus or which species it is. Similarly, what is discussed here is Ramapithecus, its similarities. You find it for the first time in the Indian region. You are seeing it in other places too. You are seeing it in the list, in the region of Pakistan, you are seeing it from India too. So, it is asking for its anatomical features, and those anatomical features are, sorry, you are seeing them here. Among these, we can discuss two in detail, but many terms might not be understandable to you because they are visible on the board or not. Many terms are from the units of Physical Anthropology that you study. For example, the first point above is "in size and inserted vertically and not in a slight prognathous position as in the apes." Here you will know about incisors, but if we have to explain prognathous, it will take your time. Similarly, the term "diastema" comes here. Little or no canine diastema. You know about canines, but diastema basically means a gap between two teeth. You call it diastema. It is usually seen between canines. When you talk about a primate or a human, then this is one feature. So, there are many such terms you will see which will cause you some difficulty. The dental arcade, which is the structural basis of your entire teeth, you call it the dental arcade. The entire thing you see is also of different shapes, right? So, here you are seeing a round date. In us, how is it? Earlier, when you go to primates, how is it in them? In them, you see a V-shape. Somewhere you see a U-shape. U-shaped is a code, remember that. You are seeing it in a U-shape. And when you come to us, humans, then you will see a parabolic shape, like a parabola, in humans. So, there are many such things. If we explain each and every thing, the canine fossa is mentioned here. You must have heard the name of foramen magnum. So, if you know foramen, you should also know fossa. So, there are many such words. You will have some problems with them. I am telling you all these things in the basics of Physical Anthropology. After that, we will return to all these things. So, it is very necessary to know that particular term. People like us have covered Archaeology. So, first, understand that, then you will be able to understand these features well. This is given to you as an example. Similarly, you have to understand both. There is no big difficulty in this. It seems like a big deal, but what happens is that the gap between two teeth is called diastema. What does this tell us? It's just a buzz, a scientific thing, all these things are just because of its terms. Gluteus medius, gluteus minimus, gluteus maximus, different muscle names. You know that many muscles are there, you know. This is the case with gastrocnemius, all these muscles. And it is giving you muscle attachment sites, just the names are changed. If we explain it through diagrams, it becomes very easy for you. What are muscles? You just read the general name of the muscle or see in the picture which part it is. So, such things you will see there. So, clarifying terminology, clarifying concepts is very important. To understand all these, first, if you understand them, then this is a piece of cake for you. So, I hope most of our part here is clear and covered. One last unit is left for you, which is 1.3, and that is talking about Ethnoarchaeology. I have explained to you that you study past societies, past cultures, artifacts, and other evidence, including fossils. Ethnoarchaeology means studying past societies through the lens of present societies. What does that mean? I will explain it to you with an example. Two tools are used here, which I have told you. If you know the Tylor and evolutionary school, within the theory, you see a viable society in Central India where during marriage, there is a mock kidnapping or mock resistance. Kidnapping or resistance, meaning marriage is happening, so someone from the girl's side or the boy's side will stop her, resist, say no, don't do it. And what is this? It is a cultural phenomenon and a survival. Things that were useful in the past, but now their utility is gone, and they are still seen in a continuing form. Then you will call it a survival. So, that's what you see happening. At one time, you see female infanticide, meaning baby girls, girls were killed. And because of that, the female population became very low. And obviously, if the female population is low, then the number of boys is more, and girls are fewer. So, who will marry whom? Whom will they get as a wife, as a bride? There was a lot of difficulty for this. So, here bride capture used to happen, meaning they would take them away, or there would be resistance. Such practices happened at that time. Now, there is no problem with that because infanticide has ended in society, or it is very negligible. It has become negligible. So, now the numbers are not a problem. Now, the number of proposals is not an issue. It's equal. Everyone has equal opportunity. But still, they are doing it when there is no utility. So, that tells you that it is a survival. When there is no utility, but it is continued culturally. So, similarly, you see the same thing here. You are seeing that in Bhimbetka caves, okay? Inside them, there are many drawings, many paintings. Now, how will you understand these drawings and paintings? How can we read them? Can we relate them to past societies or contemporary societies? So, you will look at their present artistic or cultural patterns, study them. If you see similarities between the drawings and paintings in Bhimbetka caves and the tribal groups around there, the things they are making, then you will say that yes, we are seeing this here as a survival. You understand some things as parallel, some things as survival. So, these two concepts, you have to study 4-5 of them, understand the concepts, and your entire point, part is covered. This entire archaeology part does not take much time. I think 2-5 lectures are sufficient. Within the limit of one month, this is covered. It takes around one month. Tribal and Indian Anthropology. So, these three together are finished in two months. That is, Paper 2, which is yours, can be dealt with well within two months. Similarly, Paper 1, in a moderate pace, if you go into detail, it is covered in three months. The maximum limit for Anthropology comes to be around five months. An average class is one hour. If you rush very fast, it can also be covered in three and a half months. You might be surprised to know that if you take the total number, it is more than the total population of many countries in the world. Yes, if you talk about the official figures of the 2011 census, then the number we see there was 8.6% of the total Indian population was comprising or representing tribes of the total Indian population. And you know that due to COVID and other time disruptions in the period of 2020, 21, 22, official censuses have not been conducted yet. We don't have the latest data figures. So, many private bodies, NGOs, and news media agencies give their projected figures, but their sample size is very small. So, this uniqueness of tribes, which represents the true cultural diversity of India, we are bringing it to you here. Where is our own liking for you, where we are going to finish the entire Anthropology syllabus. In what timeframe? In 14 hours. By the time you are watching this video, two videos have already been delivered to you, have reached you. I hope you have watched them, understood them, and also noted down important things from them. Although many are a summary in themselves, so there is not much scope for making notes from them. There you don't need to make three notes. The video will always remain. Although our portal, our channel, you know, many of you know that it was hacked for some time yesterday. But despite that hack, we have recovered all the videos, and all our videos are now available. You can access the playlist, search for our videos, and they will remain there. So, this hacking, hacking keeps happening. There are many people who have nothing to do, just want to pass time. So, if they have nothing else, let's do some hacking. So, apart from those people, we are continuing our marathon. And in the marathon too, the first part has gone to you: Social Anthropology, in how much time? In 3 hours, meaning in 180 minutes, we finished your thinking. And the next video that will reach you is Theoretical, meaning you talk about various schools of thought, which alone takes a month. We finished that in how much time? Around, I think, 90 minutes or two hours. In that period, the entire video, you can watch it. You can read all the theories in it. And presently, when we have brought you the part of Tribal Anthropology, which is in Paper 2, right? You know the syllabus is divided entirely into two parts, like any other optional. 500 marks are seen here. And out of these 500 marks, no other color. Out of these 500 marks, you talk about 250 for Paper 1 and 250 for Paper 2. If you divide this 250 and look at it, then the first paper comes in 3 broader outlines. First, your Social Anthropology, the second part is what? Physical Anthropology and Biological. Why are we calling it unique? It is unique because it is in Paper 1 and also in Paper 2, but the nature is different. In Paper 1, yours is of a general nature. That is, you are reading about archaeological practices worldwide, what is the subject of archaeology, how are its practices, how do you know anything, principles, many things. So, that is generally introducing you to worldwide cultures, cultures, and how they apply in a global sense. In Paper 2, you read it again. Then it becomes in the Indian sense, or it becomes Indian. There you are reading about Indian society, Mesolithic, Neolithic, Indus Valley Civilization, Chalcolithic, which are running concurrently, were there before, and are there later. You are reading about proto-historic societies. You are reading about the displacement in the next unit. So, there are many such things that have an Indianized flavor. In Archaeology, you read that in Paper 2, within Social Anthropology, you also have the theoretical part. Although some people keep it separate, but the nature is similar, so you can cover it under Social Culture. So, in terms of time frame, if we explain this entire thing, then it is a lot. Here too, if we tell you that it is the part of Tribal Anthropology, and another is Indian Anthropology. Here too, some people combine Tribal and Indian Anthropology and present them together. So, that is up to you. There is no talk of branches here. It is not about how the displacement is divided. It is according to your syllabus. The syllabus is divided like this. Therefore, we divide it into three parts in Paper 1, and we are dividing it into three parts in Paper 2. And what we are going to discuss today is what? It is our own part of Tribal Anthropology. And we are going to finish it in 90 minutes. But before reaching that, we have told you twice that all these things are superficial, like the cream on milk. You are getting that kind of thing here. The flavor is reaching you, but if you want to receive the nutrition, then you have to study things in depth. This is a summary, and a summary is very good for getting introduced to any discipline in a marathon. Many people, Anthropology is at the graduation level, not at the schooling level. Sociology, Economics, all the GS subjects, History, Geography, you see everything, but Anthropology is not found. So, many people.

It is not known that everyone is interested, friend. What is this subject that is carrying a success rate of 10.5 every year when you look at the India ranks, you get to see the display of Anthropology. It is the only subject where you are seeing such a displacement, and then an optional subject which has given two India Rank Ones in the last four to five years. Many optional subjects have not been able to give even one India Rank One in 10-10 years. Here, Anthropology is giving two every 5 years. If you talk about 2017, then India Rank was in Anthropology, India Rank One. And if I talk about 2020, then it was also in Anthropology. Who knows, people enrolled in our batch might be among those who are appearing next, and we might see one name from them. It happens with us too. So, people try to understand this trend, that which subject is it. Many people want to know that this subject is very good, its statistics are very good, a success ratio of 10.5. Pick up other subjects, the major optionals in UPSC, if you calculate the other five, the average success ratio you get to see is 7.7%. And what is the success ratio of Anthropology? 10.5%. So this also makes people interested. You get to see numbers above 360 in this. If you talk about Laxmi Nagar, 362 marks, 354 marks. Akshar Jain, look at 2018, 335 marks. And all these people have not studied it, it's not like they did BA, BSc, MA, MSc in some other discipline. If you talk about Akshar Jain, he came from IIT Guwahati, did a course in design, and finally came here and studied Anthropology. So, someone from outside, who doesn't even have a humanities background, can excel so well in this subject. It means if they have a background in life sciences, or a medical background, or a background in medicine, then it is also very easy to excel in Anthropology. Yet, you are seeing that people are excelling in this even without these things. And a person from every strata, every background, can come and do so easily in this. At least, if you talk about the average student, if you say that 360, 370, these are big scores, maybe someone exceptional is getting them. Even then, if you are an average student, I am not even talking about the average, right? Then for you, the barrier of 300, which only toppers can cross in all other subjects, is very easy here with less effort, with less time duration. The lack of time duration is a very good thing because it will take less time, so you can allocate your remaining time to revision, answer writing, practice. Model question papers are also becoming important for you in the last one year. Every year you are seeing that the nature or the dynamic of the UPSC paper is increasing. So you need time, and that time will only be there when you can solidify the optional in the least amount of time and move on. Another good thing is that 75 to 85% of the portion is static. That is, sometimes, why are we giving this range of 75%? Because some acts like forest acts, you also read them under tribal anthropology. Forest Rights Act, there are sometimes some changes in it. Rules and regulations are not coming up on tribals, like the Pradhan Mantri Gramin Vikas Yojana scheme has just come. So these things come in a very large time frame. So, in the year when it is just one, you will see that the dynamic will increase a bit, so the static portion will remain 75% and the dynamic will be 25%. If you leave out the 3 to 5 year cycle, then on an every year basis, 85% of this subject remains static. So you don't have to add from here and there, attach notes, staple things, outline things, magazines, editorials, Livemint, a world of things that take your time and effort, you don't have to do that. So this is how it helps you here. Talking about Tribal Anthropology, which we are going to cover in 90 minutes, I think I have said this before, tell me if I am wrong, we are going to cover this in 19 minutes. And this is part of Paper 2. And in Tribal Anthropology, the most important thing is, I have seen a missing element, even when I was learning. I have both an academic background and a UPSC background in this. Which is a bit rare to see. I have also done Semiology from the same subject later. And one thing I have noticed is that people become so comfortable with the basics, especially those who teach, that they think, "Okay, they must know this." But why do you think that person will know this? When you are introducing this discipline, you have to explain everything from the basics. You are teaching Tribal Anthropology, and you are not even explaining what a tribe is. You think everyone knows what a tribe is. They live in forests, they have strange traits, traditions, customs. Because there is no definition, when you are teaching something, you have to explain the basics and the concepts. So that's what we are going to do here. Before we move on to that, as we said, all these things are like the cream on the milk, a summarized form, which is perfect material for your revision, along with the notes that you will get in our batches. All the children who are enrolling. So, first of all, let's come to this, that your tribal, first of all, read this proverb. What is written? When there was nothing, there was no song, right? I think Kun Faya Kun. When there was nothing anywhere, only you were there. So, the same thing is that when there was nothing here, meaning when there was no self, then there was tribe here. What does tribe mean? I have used this term. You must have seen many videos on our YouTube. So we say that in tribals, there is a 'we' feeling. Our and ours, the tendency is very high. We, our, ours, we are talking about common ownership, things that you don't hear or see in modern society. What happens there? The self becomes very big. What does it mean for the self to become very big? It means that people there are talking about their own benefit, their own selfishness, and I mean, me, myself. That's why you are seeing that the proverb says that when there was no self, meaning there was no 'I', then there was 'we', and where there was 'we', there was tribe. So the feeling of 'we' is very important. Just like our code is also made from the feeling of 'we'. Slide, meaning you and I together make it, and our code is also made for this reason. If you look etymologically, meaning in terms of literal meaning, if you decode, this is just a root word from which you get to see, and what was the meaning of this particular word? It meant [music] from the Latin word, or which you can also say, there are some things that are very important for you to know, and we have told you. One of our demo videos was shot, maybe around 2 hours long. The demo video of Tribal Anthropology is in the playlist of our Anthropology. Even after the hack, the studio's website was hacked, you will still find it there. So you can go and see all these things. I have discussed it there too, but I will tell you here as well, because I am assuming that many people are seeing this for the first time and have not seen that video. And therefore, it is important for you to know what the distinction is. We also made a separate video on this a long time ago. What is the distinction? You see similarities there. There are classes, there you see the feeling of 'we'. We have talked about it. There is a lot of boundedness. You see common ownership. So, when you talk about all these things, about governance, administration, of whom? Of tribals. Then very important things are said, and a very important thing is that you can distinguish and tell which group among the tribes, or which population, or which people, need our assistance, need our help. Our help, meaning not yours and mine, but the government's help. So, that's why here we see, we say that find those characteristics that will help you identify, mark those people from among the tribals, or from the tribal group, identify those people who need a sort of urgent, urgent. If you don't, how did you identify Scheduled Tribes? When you tried to explain the difference between tribe and Scheduled Tribe, it becomes very important that you mark some characteristics to clarify this difference. So we talked about tribes, that their language can be common, their clans are common, they have a 'we' feeling. So all these features of a tribe are also in Scheduled Tribe. But when you want to identify which tribes need your help, whose condition is very bad, then you keep characteristics for them. And different characteristics have been given by different committees, which we will also read slowly as we move forward. There are many such things, that they are isolated groups, there is some backwardness, their economic means are not that developed. Many characters. The D.N. Lokur Committee gave them in 1965, which we are going to discuss as we move further in this unit. Another thing you are seeing here is that tribal states are talked about. Just as we said at the beginning, you see 8.6% tribal population in India according to the census. It is projected that maybe by the time the next census happens and data comes, it will be 9%. 9% of what? 142, 145 crore, which is being said as your population at this time. So, if you talk about 144, this number has become very big, around 14 crore. Such a big number you see of tribals. So, out of them too, not all tribals are disadvantaged, not all tribals need assistance. Many tribals are well-off, meaning prosperous, their economic condition is good, they have integrated with the mainstream society. Then comes the state. There are many such places in India. We will show you with data here. If this part is not visible, do not be in a hurry. You can also search for "Indian Tribal Community" on Google, and you will find this map. So, it's not like your work won't get done without this. We are also going to share this material, or these PPTs, or the entire content you are seeing here, on our Telegram group. So, no need to worry about that. Here, you can see the allocation of tribes on the map of entire India. First, see where which tribe is. You will see many major tribes here. For example, there is a population of Bhumij, Koya, Khasi, Angami, which comes under Nagaland, their population you can see. Chenchus in Andhra Pradesh, Koya, Gond. I have personally worked on this. I have done field work on this population and Gond. The Gond population you can see. So, we have also worked on the ground on all these. In Anthropology. So, there are many such cases, such insights, which are very useful to you when we go into the course. Because it's not that we are just studying the subject theoretically or preparing for UPSC by taking it as an optional. We have our academic orientation in it, and along with that, we have also done field work. So, due to the combination of these three, the insights you will get, I have rarely found such insights. You will not find such a combination anywhere, where Anthropology is being taught as an optional. It used to be taught a long time ago, but those teachers retired in the 90s. At that time, this optional was not that popular, because so many India ranks were not coming. In the last seven to eight years, if you take the period of 2013-14, since then so many India ranks have been coming. If you talk about 2017, then out of the top ten ranks, four were of Anthropology. These are very big numbers. I am saying them simply, you are listening, but if you want to realize that in one year, four ranks out of the top ten are given by one subject, and the next year it is giving Rank Two, and after that, the highest score is also given by the same subject, 362. That is, in four to five years, you see more than 10 India ranks from one to ten. What do other subjects say? They say, "We have so many ranks in the top 50, or in the top 100." We say, "Why go to that level? Compete with us at the top 10." So, this is the specialty of Anthropology. So, you are seeing all these tribal allocations. And here, if you look, you can see the regional concentration of tribes. These legends are made here, according to color. So, where you see orange, this orange box, orange color on the map. I think the color is visible. First, the text, and you don't even need to see the text. You know where the states are. You have studied geography well, it's a childhood thing. So you know which states are where. So, this orange you see, there you see the maximum tribal concentration. For example, the groups in the Northeast, here Meghalaya, Nagaland, Mizoram. Here, compared to their total population, the tribal population. So, this number here helps you in understanding the demography of the tribal population. In some areas, at the extreme, you see white areas, here the tribal population is not present. So, this is also an important statistic. Puducherry, which you call Puducherry, that area, there is no tribal population present. If you take the example of Chandigarh, Punjab, Haryana, Delhi, and add Puducherry to it. So, these are five places where you do not find native tribal populations. Of course, it's not that if a tribal group from Tamil Nadu has migrated here for migration, education, employment, then you won't consider them. But in general, we are talking about natives, about which ethnic groups are associated with which places, based on that we are talking. We are not talking based on migration, employment, education, and all these things. So, I hope this data is clear to you. After this data, we have some more data. You have seen the states. Another thing comes up: what is the terminology for tribals? Has this word "tribal" always been used, or since when? This becomes very important. And secondly, the ministry that is responsible for this, some people, so how is it being administered? First of all, you see that in 1857, there was not so much interest. Until then, the British or the colonial regime was focusing all its efforts on the mainstream society, the big urban centers, strengthening their trading units, factories, or administration. When they establish their rule, monopoly trade, everything in these places, they get time. So, what do they do now? Everything is done in the main areas. Now they turn to tribals and their resources. What resources do they have? Not only that, but what is more important? They have mining in many places, in the Jharkhand, Odisha belt, where you are seeing it. So many raw materials that you extract from there. Tribal pockets are formed in those places. Tribal population. It is used economically a lot, right? It helps in construction, infrastructure. You can also take help from it for many other things. So, forest resources are also formed. Tribals lived in all these places. So, until rules and regulations were imposed, until they were understood, administered, controlled, it was not easy to rule over these things, or over their areas, their resources. To do this, then you see that they are slowly associating administrators with anthropologists. They are calling them to many places and saying, "Administrators, to the administrators, and tell them how you can win over these people." Win over, meaning either manipulate them or control them, but in such a way that there is no rebellion there, or no trouble arises. So, you understand, by clearing the examination, without any other option, you move on. Even then, in the latest stage, you are seeing that the understanding of Anthropology, the tools of Anthropology, are so much needed there that even our colonial regime, without the help of anthropologists, could not control these things, this entire tribal front, or any other ethnic group they encountered.

The British were doing, they definitely needed people who understood the color of these tribal people or Indian color, and who could read color in the most holistic way. So, if you have to administer or rule anyone, whether in a good sense or a bad sense, you must have a deep understanding of the psychological and cognitive aspects of their nature, their color, and their identity. That's why you've always seen that in Indian society, the British identified the resources. Now they had to regularize things. To regularize, tribals had to come into their written records, revenue records, and their names had to appear. So, earlier, when they had to say something about such a population, tax collection was happening, all sorts of things were happening, how did they mention it? There was no proper term at that time. So, from the time of the census, you see the early phase of the formation of Congress. So, from 1891, they started using terms in new records. And it's not necessary that only these two terms were being used in 91. Administrators were using many different terms in various places. But only those terms become popular which are from big presidencies and big units like Bombay, Madras Presidency, and the Bengal region, which are major power centers. So, the terms used here become more popular. Descriptions. So, in 1891, the two terms being used were 'Vanvasi' and 'Charwaha'. 'Charwaha' is a term used for herds. You see, many tribals have herds, they had them before, and they still do. For example, in South India, in the Nilgiri region, you can find many such tribes. They are involved in herding, grazing, and all these activities. So, 'Charwaha' became a term used for them. Another was that they were living in forest areas, so they were called 'Vanvasi'. 'Van' means forest, and 'Vasi' means inhabitant. So, for those living in the forest, they used these terms.

Next, you come from '91 to 1901, 1911. Then they started using 'Naturists' for them. Why are they using 'Naturists' for them? Because they have a great attachment to nature. Their economy, their culture, their society, their religion, everything revolves around nature. That's why they are called 'Naturists' because they are very nature lovers. Next, you move further to the census of '21, and they started using the term 'Pahadi' (hill dweller) and also 'Van Janjati' (forest tribe). 'Pahadi' because they usually lived on hills. In many places. In '31, you come across another term: 'Primitives'. They are called 'Primitives' because, by that time, they were seen as backward in a cultural connotation. Many works were being published worldwide. So, they were being defined with backwardness – cultural backwardness, economic backwardness, social backwardness. They were being called 'Primitives', 'Simple Societies'. Why? Because their means of production were not as augmented, not as resourceful as ours, or rather, as those who were calling them so. So, this term started being used to understand them. Even G.S. Ghurye, a prominent sociologist, Govind Sadashiv, a very big name in India, or even if you study anthropology, they called them 'Backward Hindus'. Gandhiji was using different terms, and many other people were using different terminologies and explaining which terminology was more suitable for them. In '35, for the first time, you see the mention of 'Backward Classes' and 'Castes', and also 'Tribals'. You also see the mention of 'Ethnic Groups' there. But it was limited to just a mention. That is, already in 1948, you see that 'Tribal' becomes a consolidated part of the Indian lexicon. That is, on the administrative front in India, these terms started being used uniformly. You see the solution to this.

The next evolution you see is regarding the governing body for tribals. You can see this on this front. If you look from '47 to 1985, there was no separate body. Just a division was created under the Ministry of Home Affairs, and that division was looking after it. It is not written here. Yes, it is written here. From '85 to '98, it was again seen as a department under the Ministry of Welfare, the ministry created for welfare. Again, you see from '98 to September 1999, the Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment was governing it. Tribal administration. Then, finally, everything settled when the Ministry of Tribal Affairs was formed in 1999, and to this day, it is looking after it as a specialized body. You should know this. Before the start of Tribal Anthropology, we are almost half an hour done in this series. It's time. One and a half hours. Our units. The first unit you see is 6.1, that is, 'Tribal Situation in India'. Here, the situation of tribes is being discussed. When you talk about the situation, there are different aspects. We often tell you that the anthropology syllabus, unlike other disciplines, is very well-defined. So, in the situation, if it were just about something else, it would be talking about tribes. I can challenge that it would just end the discussion here, saying, tell us about the tribal situation in India. You will keep telling about the tribal situation in India, and it will never end. What all will you tell? But here, it has defined it and explained it completely, what exactly is needed. It needs to know the bio-genetic variability, meaning how you classify populations in racial-ethnic terms and how you mark their distribution. So, this is what your 6.1 unit under Paper 2 is trying to convey.

On the front of distribution, when you talk about regional distribution, you can simply say geographical distribution. North Indian tribes, South Indian tribes, Central Indian tribes, Western Indian tribes, Northeast tribes. And you don't just have to do North East, West. You also have to mention which tribes will come under it. For example, in the South, you see the 'Arrakula', 'Pani' population, 'Kadar' population, 'Toda' population. If you go to island regions, many people keep island regions separate. So, in Andaman, Lakshadweep, on many islands, you will find populations. This is how you divide them. Nicobar Islands, you will see them. You will see them. So, classify them based on the region. If you go to the Northeast, you will see 'Semang', 'Nagas', sorry, 'Angami Nagas', 'Konyak Nagas', 'Ao Nagas'. So, in this way, you see the population of particular subdivisions. If you go to the North, you will find further different tribes. The 'Tharu' tribe, which is found in the Uttar Pradesh region. The 'Ansar-Pawar' tribe is found. A very big name has emerged in recent years, you might know, I've mentioned it once or twice before, 'Jogi Nautiyal'. So, he belongs to a particular tribe. The 'Koyal' tribe, which is found in the 'Jonasar-Babar' region or the Babar regions of Uttarakhand. In Central India, there is a lot of diversity, a lot of concentration. The Bhils are also found there. So, this is how you classify tribes or tribal groups based on geographical distribution.

Next, if you are talking, you have the second segment: how do you classify based on bio-genetic variability? Meaning, racial classification. And you also study this in Art and Culture. You study both linguistic classification and racial classification. But here, we are studying it specifically in the tribal context. There, it is about India. So, here you see, but H.P. Risley, who was a prominent census commissioner and a major administrator or policymaker during the time of the British. In 1915, he gave this classification. And this was the first one. That's why today, we have major classifications of tribes in anthropology. We study half of them in the UPSC syllabus. When you have to explain, and that half is what you have to specifically remember. That is, and you will see all three here. First is Risley's classification, Herbert Hope Risley. And we mention it because it is the first systematic one. So, the first is always talked about. Who was the first to step on the moon? Who climbed Everest first? In this way, the first man to reach 200 runs in ODIs, many people have scored, but who was the first man in history to reach 200? Sachin Ramesh Tendulkar. So, in this way, you have different things. The first has its own importance, and we mention it. He divided the entire tribal population into these heads. Here, we are just telling you the heads because you are getting the cream here. The nutrition you will get, the detailing of this, why these characteristics were there, and why it was divided into these. Why Risley made it based on which features, and which populations come under it, you will discuss this when we have the full-length batch, where we have the entire 400+ hours.

So, I hope that for all those who want to give a serious attempt, who want to prepare, who want to know, understand, and revise anthropology, this video, this entire 14-hour series, is more than sufficient. For clarity of concepts, it is also a sufficient source. Even for UGC NET preparation, many people are preparing, it is sufficient for them. Many people in college graduation feel they need something extra, so for them, anthropology sources are not that many, lectures are not available quickly. So, it is sufficient for them too. But for those who want to crack the UPSC examination, and for that matter, any competitive exam where anthropology is involved, and you genuinely want to score numbers, and you come into that category, then you are provided with the entire glimpse, not just the cream, but also the nutrition. Full hand-holding is provided. Along with that, you get lecture notes, the PPTs, PDFs that are used, are also provided. Handwritten notes specially designed for you are also provided. And personal guidance, mentorship, live discussion of every aspect, all those things, doubt-clearing sessions, are all provided there. Even our test series is included, so that's the icing on the cake.

Now, back to the topic. In these heads, you talk about the next. You talk about Aryans, finally Mongoloid. So, these different Mongoloid races, sorry. So, in these different heads. We made a video on the forensic aspect. If the head is very long, you call it dolichocephalic. And if it is very broad, you call it brachycephalic. If it is medium, you call it mesocephalic. So, it is divided on this basis. The structure of the nose is also there. Based on that, in different regions, due to different reasons, the structure of the nose also changes. So, the terminology for the nose is: a very thin, long nose, a very slender, long, narrow nose. What do you call it? Leptorrhine. In this way, you have mesorrhine and platyrrhine, which are very broad noses. So, based on this, how do you find it? And the reason for this is all these things. First, we talked about how you classify by race. Second, height. Is the height long, short, how is the height? So, biologically, how do you classify races? For example, if you talk about the Indo-Aryan population, or for that matter, the Caucasian population, the major European population you see. So, they have long noses. You call this condition leptorrhinia. So, that's done on the racial front. Then, on the biological front, we looked at the structure of their nose, its length, root, all these things. Now, how do you connect it to ecology? You see that in cold climates, especially where people live, in Caucasian European regions, very cold places. So, when the air passes through your nose, if it is cold and passes through your nasal passages, or if you talk about the nasal septum, you have many problems. Imagine how much sensation, how much problem you would have. So, if the length is greater, it will take time to reach there as the air passes. It's a climatological adaptation. Whereas, if you talk about hot and humid regions, it is very warm there. So, if the nose is long and the air passes through it for a long time within this entire cavity, within the nose, you will again have discomfort, problems. The air will pass through your entire system. That's why you see the platyrrhine condition, especially in the African continent, in many places. In Asia, in some places, you see it. Why? Because they have broader noses, so the air passes quickly. Its length is less, and the width is more. So, these are all the reasons, which we study in detail. I can tell you about each thing.

Again, the same thing. We have to cover 400 hours in 14 hours. To fill the entire ocean in a pot. To fill the entire sea or ocean in a particular vessel. So, we are just giving you the flavor of everything. And you know where the full nutrition, the full taste will come from. The optional batch starts on April 24th. To enroll, go to the website, enter, and use the code. Why buy at a high price? Buy it cheap. Use it. Rs. 15,000 with the test series. Guha's classification comes in 1937. Why is his classification important? Because he was in a prominent position and also a very prominent scholar. What prominent position? The name of the organization is Anthropology Survey of India, just like the Archaeological Survey of India. It was formed in '45. And its inaugural director, or director, was B.S. Guha, if I'm not mistaken. Biraj Shankar Guha was his full name. You can check. What's in the full name? He is usually famous. He divided them into these heads: Negroid, Mongoloid, Western Brachycephalic, Mediterranean, Proto-Australoid. And within that, he divided them. So, in this way, he did not provide any distinction or sub-classification within them. So, B.S. Guha's importance is that in terms of popularity, you find him the most famous. But which is the most accepted, the most scientific? That is the one that comes last, the prominent one. This is S.S. Sarkar's classification in 1961. And here, like Shah Rukh Khan's movie, I think 'Raees', where he repeatedly says, "Miyan Bhai ki daring aur jo thos things." So, you can remember it on that basis. Miyan, or you can use it with 'M'. IMF. Based on this, you can easily keep their entire classification in mind. The structure is very useful for UGC NET aspirants because they don't have to write in a descriptive form there. It's an objective form, so you just have to remember things and keep them in mind. You also have to understand, but you have to keep it in mind. So, here you can see these things. He divided these groups. So, you can do it like this. Then, Mundari speakers. Two more things were there. Language. So, within language, you also find Dravidian languages, and स्लाइड or Mundari languages. And you find Sino-Tibetan languages, which are usually found in the Northeast. So, you find those languages there.

If you divide by economic means, then in different ways, as different tribes practice according to geography, nature, and their identity, you can classify based on that. For example, some tribes still practice hunting and gathering, collection. You find such tribes in the Andaman Islands. After that, many practice horticulture. Some tribes depend mainly on fishing for their economy. You find some tribes that are pastoral herders. In Haryana and the Haryana region, pastoralism is prominent, meaning their work is based on grazing cattle and all. Next, you also find shifting cultivation and agricultural tribes. Then, some tribes are artisans, craftsmen. Some are artists, whom you call performers. You take the example of snake charmers. In this way, Tata Sky Handicrafts is very famous, which you find in the Haryana, Delhi NCR region. So, many tribes, many tribal people, using their skills, their knowledge, and the provisions provided by the constitution, safeguards, reservations, promotions, using all these things, many tribals are also in white-collar jobs. Usually, in particular tribal criminal tribes, who were earlier considered by the British.

However, to zoom in, they were given the track of criminal trials, which was later removed after independence. Since then, the Meena strike came within it. Even today, you find the minute drive in the area of Rajasthan, in the entire area there is their concentration, and if you talk about this type, then many people are seen to be selected, day by day, year by year in the UPSC examinations. So many people are also coming into white-collar jobs, professional jobs, and industrial jobs. So it's a whole sequence. If you talk about economic classification, coming to the 6.3, what is the impact of development projects on tribals? Any project requires land, resources, and the people who are already living there have to be removed. They have to be removed, so you must have seen two phenomena coming to the fore: displacement and rehabilitation. That is, first remove them and then rehabilitate them elsewhere. We have seen many tribals in our personal case studies. We have done field work in the area, and in that, we see that many tribals are usually simple-minded. Their life is completely, I think 6.2 we skipped something in between. That's what I said, some things are appearing small here. We will come to 6.3 later. First, let's see that tribals, you have read their classification, what are their problems? They are called a disadvantaged group, so what is the problem? The problem is that you don't see them in the syllabus. There are many, but the syllabus is helping you, guiding you. First, land alienation, second, poverty, third, illiteracy, poor education, facilities, unemployment, underemployment, health, nutrition. These are all their major problems, and the good thing is, not good, but an interesting thing is that these problems are interrelated. How? Tribals have a clear status, and representation of status is a big problem. Still, if something is related to their status, they will spend a lot of money on it, invest a lot of resources. But this thing you see regularly, because of this, they often have a lot of financial problems. And what are the activities in which people often spend a lot of money, and you see these things related to their status even in non-tribal societies, in mainstream society? One such thing is marriage. Our people are often taking loans to do all these things. There are many such celebrations, events that you organize. If someone has a newborn, all those things are done with great lavishness because status is also attached there. The better you do these things, the more people will say, "Wow, their status is very good, their condition is very good." So in this pursuit, one thing is lavishness, spending more on everything, being extravagant, and the second thing is the habit of alcohol. You see that the model written in English can also be removed. So, in every tribal society, the culture of alcohol has always been there. What you call local brew, homebrew alcohol, which is called handi somewhere, somewhere it is called mahua, in different places it is called podi or podu, I think in some state in South India. So you see all these things happening there. So alcohol and this problem, together they are causing a very big problem. The problem is that you start having financial problems, poverty is resulting because you already have alcohol, you have a complete habit of alcohol, your money is getting exhausted, you need more, you need more alcohol. And earlier when they used to make it at home and when you say it was a regionally brewed alcohol, then it was not so much of a problem for them. But it was a big problem, and many health conditions were deteriorating because of it. So regulations came, the government, even the colonial government, imposed restrictions on all these things, and the system of alcohol, the whole thing you talk about, started distributing licenses. Licenses were distributed on the periphery of the village or a market was prepared in front of the village where alcohol was supplied. Licenses were issued, and obviously, their condition was worsening because of all this. Often they have less money to spend on weddings, and for money, they used to take loans from moneylenders or from people in the village because they knew they had these habits. They would take a big loan, not be able to repay the loan, and then their land and property would be snatched away by the middleman. So the alcohol sellers, even you see where the British don't have a hand, there the non-tribal or Hindu population or some other population also came and did this kind of thing with them, taking advantage of their simplicity, their habits. Everyone wants to take advantage of others for their personal economic interest. So there is nothing new in that. You took money. Now there is another problem: you took money, and their educational status is very poor, they are not educated, not literate. So they wrote ₹50 on some document, saying they gave ₹100 or ₹70. And they took their thumb impression. The person is helpless, needs money somehow, they didn't realize that they would be fooled, they would be looted, all these things would happen. So they put their thumb and happily went away. Even today, the government has provided many credit facilities for tribals, and people don't like to go to institutional places. They don't like to go to a big institutional building and ask where they will get a loan. You see 50 people sitting, 50 offices. Moreover, they are strangers, and there is a lot of paperwork. So how will they do all these things? They consider all this a hassle, a very problematic thing. It's better to take directly from someone you know in your village, who will give it to you immediately, and you will repay it. That's why even today you see this middleman system in various tribal communities. Now, you have understood these three things: their education was not good, so they put their thumb on anything. Due to the habit of alcohol and lack of money, and lavishness, to manage expenses, they are taking extra loans. Because of all these reasons, what happened is that their poverty increased. Due to poverty, you see that when they cannot repay the money, they cannot even manage their own livelihood, so how will they repay the loans? They won't be able to repay. So indebtedness comes. Another problem is, right? You don't return someone's money, you don't repay the loan you took. That is indebtedness. And when indebtedness comes, they didn't read the documents, they signed them. It often says that if you cannot repay this, then your cattle, your cows and buffaloes, all these things will become ours. If the amount is small, it's gone. If the amount is large, then their entire land, their entire agricultural field will be taken. Because of this, land alienation is happening, meaning they lost their land, their land. Due to indebtedness, they lost all this. So all these problems, you see how they are interrelated. Due to lack of literacy and education, they signed on anything. Due to alcohol and lavishness, they took more money from people, raised it, and couldn't repay it, so their land was also lost. So all these conditions, one is the loss of land, the second way land is lost is that governments often want to displace them for development schemes, and displacement is not easy. Their forest land, their land is very important to them. So often there are many difficulties. The government gives them money, they think they will keep getting money. They spend the money on whatever events happen in the near future. They spend the money and then sit back after spending it, or use it and sit back. And then they feel that the government will give more money. The government is not going to give money again because it has already given compensation once. And due to such problems, they often feel that the government has cheated them in a way. And using all these things, the Naxalite movement integrates them with themselves, and you say a tribal has a problem with tribal interests, they have a problem with your government, so they are also manipulating and using them for their own benefit or for their cause. Lack of facilities, lack of educational facilities, schooling, you see it there, it's not there. Plus, what problem do you see in their community? Every person who looks like a helping hand, the tribal population, people are not going into their company. There is no major employment. They are working in agriculture or in such work where people are very necessary. So manual labor is very necessary there. So every person, every member of the family, is a helping hand. If they send them to school, the work cannot be done. And especially the working, whatever work there is, they can either study or do that. So usually people leave studies and do that. So there is a problem of education, lack of facilities. Secondly, you see unemployment and underemployment. I don't think you need anything here. Next, you see health and nutrition problems. We give the example of a tribal community in Arunachal Pradesh, how their fertility is lost due to alcohol consumption, and their population number is completely reduced by at least 85% within a time span of, I think, 40 to 50 years, within five decades. So you see many such things there. Even when talking about health, they have personal beliefs, beliefs in charms and magic, beliefs in tantrics, shamans. You see magic healers, ojhas, local healers. They trust such people, not doctors. So sometimes, even if the government wants to open something, provide some facility, they don't accept it. The results are completely based on beliefs. So this is your 6.2. We said 6.3, there is another way of land alienation, that the government also takes their land sometimes because they have to carry out development projects there, and their displacement is a big problem because, as explained, they use the money here and wait for more money. But the government is not weakening. The work of both the government is not happening, and the place is not vacant for a long time, and they have given money. They are still not vacating. And their work is also not going on. And a movement is also slowly starting that the government is doing this to remove us, taking our land, work is going to start here, and we are not being given a place anywhere. So the government says we have given the money, you spent it and sat down, so what is our fault? So this kind of tussle continues between them. You see case studies, even you read the Sardar Sarovar case, in many places in the Northeast, in Kerala, you are seeing it. So day by day, you get many news items, so you can use these studies very well in this segment. So we talked about the colonial period up to the point where their interests slowly started to be established, and they also came to the forest resources. They said, "Until we remove them, how will your work proceed? Only when you bring them under control will your work happen." So they also start making forest policies, impose various rules, stringent provisions through which they can control them and keep tribals away from forests so that they can fulfill their economic interests there. So around 1880 is a time period, regulations start coming gradually. By 1911, it was forbidden to take them there. You cannot take your buffaloes, your herds, your cattle there. So first, there are simple rules, but from 1927, you see a stringent provision coming. Forest officials and what you call rangers, etc., will be seen working for the first time. Posting is complete. Earlier, officials were there, but they were not working like that. So rangers are being posted, and various rules have come. Within this, many areas started facing penalization, meaning the process of punishment started. If you are seen doing this for the first time, then you will be fined this much, then the second time, this much. Your grazing animals, the animals you are bringing, they will also seize them, then retain them. So you see many such cases. 1927 and the period, one after another rules keep coming, and after independence, many committees were formed around 1950. So you see many committees. There is a famous committee of Bihar's Rai Burman, you see it. You see the committee of M.B. Bori. So many committees came, gave their inputs. The ministry is getting such things done within specific departments. And through this, what is quite visible, what you see the most is that governments are forming committees, and the provisions there are either being slightly reduced or intensified. Due to all these things, their problems are increasing, aggregating, and even today, the policy is totally unsatisfactory in this particular segment. In this entire segment, we study the evolution of forest policy, meaning from around 1880 to 2019, how the forest policy has changed, what were its positives, what were its negatives. Especially if you talk about before 1885, before 1970s, sorry, before the 1970s, Indira Gandhi, because she had a great personal interest in wildlife as well as in trees and plants. This is quite from a book published by one of the earlier environmental ministers, a famous minister within Congress, his name is Jairam Ramesh. Now, how he was a minister, how he was a scholar, that is not relevant. His books are very resourceful. This is written in a book on the first defense minister of India, who was V.P. Menon. Many people confuse him with V.P. Menon, who was the Home Secretary during integration and played a significant role in integrating them, for which the entire credit is often given to Patel ji or to Mountbatten. And Mountbatten also had a great role, but V.P. Menon also had a role, and it was through the coordination of all three that integration happened. So V.P. Menon is different, and V. Menon is different. Krishna Menon. Banglin Testament, you see him. But there is a biography that you call his brilliance, which Jairam Ramesh has also written. He has written many such books on N.H. Sir. Read Indira Gandhi, so he has also shown Indira Gandhi's environmental perspective through a book. So because of that, at that time, you see that many wildlife protection acts are also coming around '72, and many pollution control acts are also being regularized. So before that time, there were forest policies that were somewhat problematic for tribals, committees were formed, but still, there were problems because those committees usually did not have anthropologists. So they would say, "Why are you letting them come? They will cut trees, use trees, do shifting cultivation, which will also be a problem." When anthropologists were on a committee, they would say, "They also have rights, they also have claims," because they have a connection with the forest that you cannot ignore. You cannot become the master, you cannot say you are the master of all the earth's resources. So this has always been happening, and it continues even today. So in this entire part, we study the evolution of forest policy. What is the impact of urbanization? Now you know that road connectivity is increasing, communication is increasing, mass communication networks are increasing. We are telling you from our research, we have seen the population of Gonas and Garias in different regions, in the area of Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh, you see the Singrauli belt here. So with mobile internet, they are watching movies, all these things. So there have been many impacts. And one thing is that this is the next unit: what is the impact of different religions? With that, you can also see that urbanization and all these things are changing their clothing patterns as well. They are becoming urban, modernized. TV is modern.

We are looking at the meaning of communication, which are modern foods, which are different. You are seeing that today, in the Indian market, more food from which place is there than from India? You get to see a feast of Chinese food. Street food is ruling, and if you go to the structure there, to the big places, then you get to see a whole box of American or Western food. The cost of coffee is Starbucks, Domino's, KFC, all these things. And street food has completely captured Chinese food. So Indian food is getting very limited in between. So you saw the same effect over there that their consumption, whether it is on the clothing front or the battery front, about which you talk, or even if you talk about the cultural aspect, it is getting diluted under the influence of urbanization. Factories have been built, they are being rehabilitated, they are being removed from their places. Okay, cement companies are located in many places, so they do not want that if someone is a forest dweller, sorry, if a tribal has a belief, then they cannot perform something there. They say this whole place is ours, you stay where you are living. Sometimes it happens that tribals want to worship a particular tree or sometimes a rock there due to their faith. They are also refusing that rock, that shrine, which you call a Mona Lisa. So we are explaining many problems here through case studies. What impact has it had? I think all these things are done here. Next, you have problems, major problems, which are also considered sometimes. For example, how, especially sometimes the government's representatives, not the government, but their representatives, the administrators who are doing the work, who are looking at things at the ground level, are facing difficulties due to their corruption. They are facing problems from the middleman. Sometimes we see different missionaries, so they were doing conversion of portfolios. So you get to see many such problem case studies in this part. And along with that, when you have read the problems, read the exploitation, then what rules and regulations has our government kept to protect them? You have seen and understood the nature of exploitation, but how will the government safeguard their interests? Our constitution is that you have to take everyone, every caste, along with you, defend, promote, protect, and ensure the safeguarding of everyone's interests. So you will also read that portion here. So these are some prominent articles. These are not all articles. At least 2.5 to 3 articles more are taught in the life course. But these are major articles that you cannot forget. If you forget them, if you don't remember them, then it will be a problem for you. So these are the major articles that you have to remember. So this is not just for tribals, it is for SC, ST, OBC, everyone. Many are applicable to all people. Some are for both SC and ST. Some are applicable to OBC along with SC and ST. So we are not dealing with the SC part and the OBC part exclusively here. Many are the same in these. For example, 275 is only for tribes. Some include both Scheduled Castes and Tribes. Some will not include Scheduled Castes and OBC. We are not telling you separately because they are tribals, so we are covering them here as well. Also, for the reason, all these things are easily told and taught in Polity and elsewhere. So you see and hear there. That's why we are ignoring this portion in the marathon. And although the live marathon increases three times, it is more than that. So our time period has probably been one hour. We have around seven minutes or five or ten minutes left, and we have 20 more minutes to exchange this. Article 15.4. Article 15 talks about equality, talks about equality. Right to equality, so that the government can take special provisions, special steps for the arrangement, special arrangement of the tribal people. So if this separate section or clause is not added with it, then there would be a problem. The government cannot make special provisions for them, cannot reach special things to them because then there would be a problem with the Right to Equality. You are talking about Right to Equality on one hand, and on the other hand, you are making separate arrangements for them. That's why you get to see a separate section. Even if you talk about 16, Article 16 generally talks to you that there will be no problem with equal opportunity. Whether it is employment or promotion, everyone will get equality. But 16, which you see here, also makes an exception in this, that yes, there will be reservation or special arrangements for them in opportunity, employment, and promotion. Next, I come to 195. In general, 19 says that you can move freely. It says that you can settle, meaning you can move anywhere freely in the country, and you can settle. So you have a liberty, freedom is given to you over your movement. But that freedom has been made subjective here through this Article 195. Through 195, restrictions are being placed on your movement. Restrictions are placed on your movement. Sometimes, even when you go to many places in the Northeast, for example, you just visited a lot of North States, you have been to Meghalaya, I keep telling you, keep sharing. I have just been to Nagaland, Sikkim, and West Bengal. So you see that when you travel in Sikkim sometimes, you have to arrange special permits. You can move everywhere with restrictions, with permits. In the major part of Nagaland, earlier there was a restriction. Dimapur, which is its central region, is within Nagaland. It is a very urban center, a commercial center. Its development is often seen more than Kohima. In Dimapur, you have the railway station. So earlier there were no restrictions there, that you can move there. Otherwise, you have to get a permit, and that permit is called ILP, Inner Line Permit, which you have to get issued by the government, without which you cannot travel. So earlier, I think Dimapur is also included in that list. So all these are restrictions on your movement. For many places, you need permits, for many places, you need special licenses. For many places, you are not allowed to go even after all these. And for many places, you are not allowed to settle. So in many places, you can settle there, build your house, do this and that. Article 244 A and 1 and 2. If you talk about them, then you talk about the Fifth and Sixth Schedules. The Fifth and Sixth Schedules are very important for tribal governance because they talk about the regularization or administration of scheduled areas and tribal areas. So this has to be studied in detail. It is not possible to cover it in less than 20-25 minutes. So this is a long portion. When you read it, you read different provisions. It takes around 20 minutes or so, depending on the detailing. Sometimes we talk about important provisions. So it takes about 15 to 20 minutes combined. Talking about 275, Article 275, it talks about special grants. That is, the government will give you special grants, funds, will provide them for the purpose of tribal development, for their interests. Talking about 330 and 332, Article 330 and 332. It gives you reservation in Lok Sabha, which you call Vidhan Sabha in Hindi, reservation in Vidhan Sabha. 243 gives you reservation in Panchayats. So it gives you reservation in Panchayats. Talking about 338, it talks about the constitution of the National Commission for Scheduled Tribes, which is done by the President. Article 342. When you come to Article 342, here the President has the notification. How does any tribe become a Scheduled Tribe? Through this Article 342, the President is empowered that he, in consultation with the Governor, can designate any tribe, any sub-tribe within a tribe, the population within that group, as a Scheduled Tribe through a particular notification. And as soon as that notification comes, that particular group, from that day, can be called a Scheduled Tribe and can use all the constitutional safeguards or benefits for them. 7.1 Here you talk about exploitation. Next, you talk about the impact of Hinduism, Buddhism, Christianity, and Islam. What is the effect of different religions on them? I divide it into neutral because there are many things that are not extreme, they are neutral. For example, vegetarianism was not there, but you are seeing it in tribals. Vegetarianism is a part of Brahmanism, but you are seeing that tribals, through cultural contact with Hindus or with the Hindu population, are also adopting these things. And there is a reason why they do it. You see, we are attracted towards people who are more developed than us, more developed than us. We might say we are great, the best, we are the best, and we are following those whom we consider better and more developed than ourselves. For example, talk about Western society. You are doing India all day, but your diet pattern is moving towards the West. Your dressing, your lifestyle, even your cultural practices are moving towards the West. Shankar Gupta's book on modernization, Yogendra Singh, all these people are telling different differences. Even M.N. Srinivas, who has a connection in all three domains of sociology, economics, and anthropology, you are reading these things within his work. So there is a difference between modernization and lifestyle. It is explained to you, but still, you see the influence of both practices today because you feel they are better than you, more developed than you. So you blindly follow their things. You feel they are more progressive. So you blindly follow them. A lot of you might say that no, we don't do it. We are not talking about you. Generally, we are talking in general terms, and many people do it. So all those subconscious things, we have used the term subconscious, you are doing it from within, but you are not ready to agree in front. So next, you are seeing. Even you are seeing that in Western toilets, Indian toilets are hardly there. Now, hardly any builder is developing a property where you find Indian toilets. So that too, from your toilets, from your food, from your dressing, your toilet system, your washroom system is also completely going in the Western direction. So in this way, tribals, their immediate access is to whom? Non-tribal or Hindu population, or Buddhist, or Christian. Whichever is their neighbor, the neighboring population, the Indian population, they have cultural contact with them. So who is more progressive, more developed for them? It is their neighboring population. That's why if they have to copy, they will naturally copy Hindu society. Whichever community they copy, they will copy Hindu society. So in Hinduism too, you see, what is the best model to copy? Brahmin and Kshatriya. Brahmin because they are at the top. So when they copy them, this particular process is called Sanskritization. We read about it in Indianization. We will see there. What will you copy socially? You are copying. So vegetarian diet. So tribals, who are completely non-vegetarian, are starting to move towards vegetarianism. Alcohol is part of their culture. They make it themselves at home. There is local brewed liquor in their markets, and they are coming against consuming that liquor. So many people count such things as positive, many people usually count them as positive. I will count them as neutral here because it is a cultural aspect, and it is better to keep such things neutral. You are also seeing many positive trends. Just like we started with Western society or modern society, similarly, a rationalization is coming to us, which you will count as positive. There are many negatives, but the biggest negative is the status of women, which has deteriorated significantly. The biggest example of the decline in the status of women is that we told you in the chapter on social culture and positive marriage that you see two types of payments related to marriage. One is called bride price or bride wealth, and the other is called dowry. So in simple society, tribal societies, you usually see the word bride price or system. And in modern society, contemporary society, you see dowry. Both are opposite to each other. In bride price, you are paying the bride's side, the bride's family, why? Because you are bringing a member from their home. We talk about simple society. We just talked about difficulties in education because if he goes to study, who will do the household work? So every member has a role. They play a significant role in the family. They are a helping hand, an economic contributor. So if you are taking a member from someone's home, you should compensate them. So among tribals, if you are taking a member from someone's home, bringing a girl, she will come to our home, contribute to our lineage, do household work, and many other things associated with her. If you talk logically, it is physical labor, manual labor. So that's why we should compensate. That's why in their society, bride price is given. Al-Imam, as recognized by Al-Imam, said that because this price is not fixed, it varies from different societies, different communities, different tribes. Some people who might have a lot of agricultural items will give agricultural tools. Some people, like you are very developed, might give a bike. Some people will give utensils, some people will give jewelry. Some are cattle tribes, so they will give cows, buffaloes, all these things. Some might give money. So it keeps changing. That's why he said that this thing is not fixed, so instead of calling it bride price, it is called bride wealth. And the second is dowry, which we all know. So under the influence of Hinduism, they have also started taking dowry. It is replacing the former. So this is one thing. And practices like ghunghat, women's freedom, divorce, marital rights, towards all these, your tribal society is moving towards an orthodox nature due to contact with contemporary Hindu society or your non-tribal society. Similarly, if you talk about contact with Islam, then many positive things are working well there. The second is the orthodox nature that you see in Islam, which is a bit, what do you call it, the term used for it is fundamentalism, which some people claim is not in Islam, some people are adding it from outside. So you are also seeing that coming through Islam among tribals. So one thing is happening, the status of women is declining, and many good features are going into them, but many problems are also arising. So there are positives and negatives in Islam and Christianity. Due to conversion, many things are happening. So that is one part. But there are many positives. For example, when we went to the tribes of Meghalaya, we went to a place a little distance from Cherrapunji, called Sohra locally. There is a village called Nongri, where people go for trekking. It is a very long stretch, and there is a valley-like structure here. And you see different things. As you climb up and down the hills, slowly, slowly, the villagers are located there. We reached Nongri on Saturday, the next day was Sunday. When we woke up in the morning, we saw everyone dressed up with their families, wearing suits, shoes, and going to church there. They were all dressed up. So it was a Christian population. There are Christian idols. They are meeting each other. The feeling of community on Sunday, like you see in foreign web series, you see the same thing there. The entire society is Christian. You see Christianity everywhere. Along with this, their education also increases because of this. They were very fluent in speaking English. We see that today some people will say.

There is no need to speak English, but it is not a matter of necessity, but it is a universal lingual frank, isn't it? The most global, the most widely recognized and spoken. So why do we need to learn any language? To speak, so that we can communicate our point. Is any language good, big, superior, inferior? Such things do not happen in language. Is the functional value of language less than expressing one's point? So, it is very good to learn a language that more people know. There is nothing wrong with it, no weakness. The matter of weakness is not being discussed there. So, that's a very crucial step. Related to education, related to rationality, things have developed quite a bit. So, Christianity also has many positive impacts. In this unit, you are reading all those things. What is the difference between the next tribe? Often a question comes up about the difference between national patriotism and the difference between a nation and a country. So, what is a nation? Any area, a territory you talk about, a mass of land where people are connected by similar ancestry, ethnicity, common language, common culture, religion, rituals, all these things are common. There is a common sense, so you say it is a nation. That's why India is usually not counted as a nation because there is so much diversity here. So, India is better suited to be called a country. If people want to see India as a nation, then what they mean is that there will be one religion in India, one nation, one language, everyone will speak Hindi. This cannot happen because you see in the South there are so many multiple languages like Kannada, Tamil, Malayalam, Telugu. So, there are so many in the West, and even in the North, you see differences, regional differences. So, this thing will cause a little trouble there. There is no single ancestry because there are multiple variations, multiple migrations, different populations have come. So, all these things are given to you. First, there is territory, then people connected to each other. There is the concept of sovereignty, the concept of the existence of government. On the other hand, what are tribes? We are reading about two things here: what is a tribe and a nation, and what is the overlap and non-overlap between them. So, in tribes too, you see the बात of common language. They are usually common, aren't they? They have a regional, isolated base. So, all these things, their culture, religion, all these things are common among them. So, you are reading about many differences and many similarities here. So, we will not tell you much about tribes because we have already covered what are the characteristics and features of tribes in the beginning. Moving to the next topic, 9.1 is about the history of tribal areas, the history of administration of tribal areas. We still have around 10 minutes, so hopefully, our history of administration part and the last part will be covered. In the history of administration of tribal areas, you read about different tribal plans and policies, how they were shaped from pre-independence or colonial times to post-colonial times, meaning post-independence. So, first, we are getting to see different schemes under the Five Year Plans, which used to be made under the Planning Commission. You are seeing tribal sub-plans, along with DP, and a development approach. The cluster approach is coming, the concentration of pockets is increasing. So, various schemes, different programs come, you read all of them here. So, under this unit, what has been the history of administration? Earlier, they lived alone, no one interfered with them. Even in the Mughal period, you see that usually when they went to the forest for hunting or such activities, there was little interaction, otherwise, they remained independent, self-governing, isolated, and lived happily in their self-rule. But when the colonials came, this whole fabric gets into trouble. Their interference is seen within the entire system of the tribals. Hill assemblies are formed, and how different forests are being brought in. An act comes, the Criminal Tribes Act, on which I have made a video in the YouTube playlist. Before bringing this act, the ground was prepared. Before that, IPC and CrPC were introduced in 1860. And after all this, in the 70s, you see that the Setia Act comes and many tribes are tagged as habitual criminals, so that they can be put in jail whenever you want. So, this is also a feature of control. They became interested in forests, so they started developing forest policies. There were different rules. We mentioned a little while ago. So, through all these things, you see how the tribes are being regulated. In this same unit, an important thing which you call PD or Primitive Tribal Group, which was later renamed as Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs) in 2006. What is the concept of PTG? We have already told you the difference between tribes and scheduled tribes. There are tribes that need assistance, meaning tribes that need proper assistance. Their number is also okay. But there are some tribes among these tribes that have many problems and need the government's development approach. And you mark such groups separately as Scheduled Tribes. That is, if you take 10 tribes, four of them are living very well, but the remaining six need your help. So, these four need your help. They are under Scheduled Tribes because they need special assistance. Now, among these six, there will be some tribes whose condition will be even worse. Like the poorest of the poor, they are poorer than the poor. So, even within Scheduled Tribes, their condition is worse than that, and those who need urgent need, urgent assistance, what do you call them? Or they have been identified. We have discussed that in detail there as well. So, you see that some tribes need our urgent help because those tribes are declining. They have described two types of tribes: one is the depopulating tribes whose number is either decreasing or stagnant, and the other is the proliferating tribes whose number is growing very well, their number is also growing, and their socio-economic condition is also good. And as an example, they count the three major largest tribes of India: Gond, Santhal, and Bhil. And besides this, you also find other tribes like Koli here. In PTGs, you find the population of Chenchus, Tharus, and also the population of Sahariyas, Buxas. And in 1975, the first list came. In 1975, the first list was released, in which 52 groups were placed under PTGs. Then in 1993, the list was updated, and 23 more groups were added, bringing the total number of PVTGs to 75. Today there are 75, but they are found in about 18 states and the Union Territory of Andaman and Nicobar. The highest number of PVTGs is in Odisha, with 13 PVTGs, then in Andhra Pradesh with 12. In this way, if you talk about the least, you find one each in UP and Uttarakhand. There is the population of Sahariyas and Buxas. So, this becomes a very important concept for you, which was later given the name PVTG in 2006. So, I hope if you want to know about this in detail, you can watch our demo videos on tribes. Read about NGOs. Next unit, in 9.2, you read about the role of anthropology in tribal and rural development, and the contribution of anthropology in understanding regionalism and communalism. Read about tribal and rural development. When India became independent, there was DP, Community Development Program, and this is called a top-to-down approach. That is, the officials sitting at the top will decide what your priorities will be, what will be done for development, what steps will be taken, what actions will be taken, what the model will be, and they are not taking the opinion of those whose development is to happen. They are not asking the person who needs help what help they need. So, such things were going on. And ask them what help they need. For example, the government decided that I have to help someone at five levels. First, I have to build their road. Second, there is a water problem at their place, there is no drinking water, I have to solve their water problem. Third, I have to look at the hospital, and fifth, you can say, improve the condition of women. So, what will you do first? Maybe an official sitting in DP said, let's build a school first. But a school is not their most needed, urgent requirement. If there is no water to drink, nothing is more important than survival. So, the tribals' first need was water, and you gave them education. It doesn't happen like that. So, priorities need to be set. You do this first, then this, then this. What is the most important thing? And in asking for their priorities and how to develop, they needed this. They tell you to follow this kind of approach. That's why you see that this is also a major reason for the failure of DP, that it was a top-to-down approach. NITI Aayog claims that it is a bottom-up approach. It has started the PAR system. It's not a song by Fateh Ali Khan. PAR stands for Participatory Rural Appraisal. In Participatory Rural Appraisal, for tribal or rural development, you first used to go to those villages, meet the people there, do mapping, set priorities, take their opinions, and thus the entire development program was going on. Because you see, even now, in many places where we have done field work, we go and see. Sometimes problems arise that the toilets you have built on tribal lands, under the Swachh Bharat Abhiyan, you know that in villages or tribal areas, they do not consider building toilets inside the house good. So, they build toilets outside the house, in open spaces. So, you have built toilets in open spaces, but sometimes it happens that there was a religious practice or a sacred place, a tree, an idol, or a particular stone that connected everyone. And if this tree is violated, there can be riots and problems. If there is no problem, but they will not use that toilet, then your purpose will not be fulfilled. To overcome all these shortcomings, anthropologists are needed. Even if you read the contribution of anthropology in understanding regionalism and communalism, such movements are basically happening because of what? Movements of regionalism, movements of communalism. You see, they revolve around what? Region, culture, religion, language, all these things. Decode the reason system, the family system, because what is the real issue due to which such violent movements are happening? What is the reason for communalism? So, it gives an understanding. It helps in understanding the problem of communalism, addressing it, and often successfully solving it. And solving it is not that easy, but once you have an understanding, the probability also increases. So, in this unit, you are understanding the contribution of anthropology through case studies. One is in rural development, tribal development, and the other is in understanding and solving problems like communalism and regionalism. I think something is missing here, social change, which was unit 7.2. All right, meaning 6.3 is done, 7.1 is done. Here, 7.2 was missing. All the information given in 7.2 is about social change. What is social change? Changes that bring about changes in social relations, changes in customs, values, structure, and function. Changes at these levels are social change. Now, what is the cause of social change? What is its nature? I think our time is almost up, but still, let's extend it by 5 minutes and cover this as well. You are seeing how social changes are happening in tribal societies, and what is a major reason for them? Increasing cultural contact, building roads, transport, communication, internet access, all these things are happening. Knowledge is being disseminated, they have access to it. So, this cultural contact has been established, so naturally, changes have come. As we discussed more or less here when we were talking about the impact of industrialization, urbanization, you are seeing changes related to this here as well. First of all, the phenomenon of collective holding, we talk about 'we', there was a sense of 'we', then it was replaced by individuality. Just like in our non-tribal society, tribals have their own laws. In political science, you read about Oti and Odals. The headmen in their system had a function of governing and solving their issues. Now, it has been replaced by judicial laws. So, you have seen a change happening. Next, talk about the tribal economy, which used to be quite distinctive. Now, as we talked about hunting, gathering, fishing, pastoralism, they used to do all these things. Now, slowly, because of constitutional safeguards and all these things, they have also become artisan tribes. Many have become artisans, folk artists. Similarly, tribes are seen, many are reaping the fruits of reservation, and with their skills and knowledge, they have also been able to get white-collar jobs, administrative jobs. So, you have seen that the tribal economy is also being replaced, it has changed. Even if we talk about the market economy, the tribal personal economy is also replaced, but tribal heart and tribal hands is a term used for the market. So, it has become a tribal market. If you want to discuss this further, you can look it up. Taking advantage of the lack of water system and education, they charge high interest and often manipulate documents, leading to problems of their proper alienation. Next, talk about reciprocity, which is the exchange of something, service, good service. The concept of redistribution, which we read in economics in the positive section, and the spirit of cooperation is being replaced by a profit-making agenda. Everything is now about profit. Another thing is the change in tribal culture, beliefs, the work of missionaries, or urbanization, modernization. In all these practices, cultural contact, there is a major change in culture as well. We talked about their dressing patterns changing, their beliefs changing. Their local laws, the art they were engaged in, have also changed. We have made a video on dormitory, what is a dormitory? India's own Hogwarts, India's Hogwarts, search for the video in our playlist. Just like Harry Potter's Hogwarts school, in the same way, the concept of India's Hogwarts. You can go and see there. It is a system of personal traditional schooling where they all live together and learn all the practices related to tribal life. That too is seen to be declining. All the material is not available everywhere. Our exclusive space is Telegram, the only option. We have told you many times that if you look at the data from 2013 to 2019, even up to 20, it has such a success rate. Now, I have told you so many times that you can also tell in the comment section, what is the success rate of 10.5? No major option has been able to show it, yet you are stopped. Why? Because anthropology, if you are a science student, you can succeed, otherwise, you won't understand. All this is said. We openly say, take anthropology, because in the last four to five years, it is the only option that has given India Rank 1 twice. You will be told openly, no, if you haven't studied Biology, Botany, Physics, Chemistry, what not, then your talk won't work. Engineers are encouraged, which is not the real intention. We can present data after data in front of you, but the other group, which wants to keep you away from the subject, from the success stories of the subject, will tell you, "The subject is good, but it's not made for you." It creates doubt and tries to scare you away from the subject. So, you get scared and hesitate. But if you talk about anthropology, we can give you four names out of 1 to 10. We are talking about people, in 10 years, who could not produce India Rank 1. We are talking about disciplines, subjects, options. And anthropology is the only option.

which has given two India Rank Ones in the last five years, let alone 10 years. 2017 was also our India Rank One, 2020 was also our India Rank One. Leaving this aside, you see alien disciplines. What does alien discipline mean? People who have never studied anthropology at the graduation or post-graduation level, and it doesn't even exist before that, come from there, choose anthropology, and score India Rank Two, 300. So, this is the trend, this is the grip, the clout of anthropology in these two UPSC optional subjects. Even after this, if someone is telling you to stay away from it, you can understand that they don't want to see you successful, at least not in this exam. Millions of people enter this exam. Many people come from Delhi, but only one Shah Rukh Khan is made. Many people have played cricket, but only one Sachin Tendulkar is made. And that matters. You can also take the names of others as examples. That's why other people also come, other people also do it, but there is some deficiency in their approach, in their choice, in their decision. Therefore, do not let there be any deficiency in your decision, and consider choosing anthropology as your optional subject. I am not saying jump into the race, think about it. Because what does it talk about? It talks about the scientific, rationalistic study of man. So, you also think about everything scientifically, logically. And here we are going to prove to you that this is your goal, and what is it? People from every background succeed in anthropology. We prove this with data, but today we will also prove it with concepts. Because we are going to deal with the promised summarized form of the entire syllabus of anthropology here, which will be your perfect revision material. And within that, today we are going to look at physical biological enterprises. And while reading and looking at this, if you follow the entire lecture, you will know how normal all these things are used here. There is no need to be afraid of any problem, to panic. So, without wasting time, we first reach the super. But before going there, let us remind you that our anthropology optional batches are starting from April 21st. That is, they have already started by the time you are watching or listening to this video. And admissions are still open. Many children have joined. We held an orientation with them, and in that orientation, we were very happy to see many people from different places, different domains. Many names were not associated with anthropology before. So, it feels good that people are gaining so much confidence. So, if you also want to make the right decision like them, choose the right optional subject, then admissions are still open in our batches. You can come. The batch that started on April 21st, and for 2024, the code you need to use is going to be US LIVE. All these codes are universally applicable on all subjects and all courses present on Study IQ. But if you talk about anthropology, you are getting this course for ₹399. And not only live classes will happen here, but your test series discussion, PYQs, model answers, many things that we have discussed. You can see what you will get here. So, it will take a lot of time. And to get any course-related material, any data, PPTs, PDFs, questions and answers, and many more hints that we give you that this might be important. To see and know all this, you need to go to the Telegram channel. Go to the search box of Telegram, type "anthro positive" and join our group. One more thing is our Instagram platform, "Sapien's Vault" S A P I E N S, like Homo sapiens, Sapien's Vault. Go to Sapien's Vault, if you have any query, anything to ask, any confusion, get it cleared. It's a portal created for our interaction. So, let's move to the topic. Physical you get to see where you are discussing things, what things you are taking along. That is going to be the portion of private communication. When that ends, your 9.1 starts, that is Human Genetics. In Human Genetics, you are told to study the methods and applications for the study of genetic principles. We are explaining many things from the ground level within this, so that students from humanities also understand the concepts better. We are going to talk in a summarized form for you here, so you don't need that much here. So, we will explain the major concepts in a basic form. So, the first thing that is very important to know to understand this entire unit of physical anthropology is the phenomenon of heritability. What is heritability? This unit is talking about genetic principles. Now, what are genetic principles? You are looking at humans. If present, I will explain it at a very basic level. Many people might think that since we are talking about human genetics, let's directly tell the concepts. But first, tell us. For those from a non-humanities background, everyone has studied science. So, they know. Still, why are you assuming this? We don't operate with that kind of approach. We will talk by assuming that maybe there is someone who only watched movies in 9th and 10th grade, only played cricket, and did nothing else. So, we will explain at that level. So, if we talk about genetics, you are standing here as a human. So, I have two aspects. One is my external aspect, and one is my internal. External is what is manifested, which the camera can also see. My eyes, my hands, ears, mouth, nose, you can see everything. All the physical features that are externally present, all that you see here. So, that is what? That is representing my phenotypic composition. At the cellular level, at the molecular level, things are performing. How are your blood vessels functioning? What changes are happening at the DNA level? What things are being performed? The cycle of different cell divisions is continuously going on. Mitosis is going on, meiosis is going on. Within that, different stages are also seen. You look at how your immune system works, its biochemistry. Transcription, translation, i.e., different functions your body is performing, which you read about. You don't need to know how the immune system works, or we are not going to tell you biotechnology or biochemistry. You don't have to study all those things here. You need to understand how breeding happens, how excretion works, how respiration works. Those are all things. So, if someone tells you that, they are lying. The syllabus is in front of you. You won't find these things anywhere here. Even if they were there, it wouldn't be that difficult. But thankfully, they are not. So, what is here, there you have to cover only the genetic composition and its study, only this topic here. So, what is genetic? Those things that are not manifested outside, all the things happening outside. My hands are moving, but behind this hand movement, many things are working. That is what? That is your control and coordination. So, what is internal constant? The external aspect of a human's being, the external, is called phenotypic. That is externally represented and manifested. So, the internal is at the genetic level, at the molecular level, how you are made, what processes are happening. And if there is a slight change in that, then many diseases and disorders can occur. So, this is the difference between the two. So, if you have to study genetics, how will you study it? Genetics. So, to study it, there are some principles. If I am standing here, my skin tone will be of a particular color. My height will be a particular height in feet, centimeters, inches, in any way you talk. If I talk about my nose, it will have a particular length, proportion. So, all these things are what? Behind a phenotypic trait, there is some genetic composition. But in what environment is someone living? In which particular region are they living? That also depends on their height. So, this is what it is. The extent to which differences are seen between two people. If one is 6 feet tall and the other is 5.5 feet tall, then the 0.5 feet more height in the 6-foot person, how much of it is due to genes? There will be some proportion due to nutrition, diet. And you can say that sometimes accidents happen, injuries happen, due to which height gets stunted. Sometimes their environment is not right. So, there are many factors. But what is the major proportion that is contributing to that height due to their genes? So, that is covered under heritability. Here are some examples. You can see the difference here. For example, lighting. You see two plants here. Uniform lighting here, uniform lighting here too. But here you see that if we talk about a uniform nutrition solution, then you see sufficiency here. Here it is normal. But here it is deficient. Because of this, you see that it is completely dried up and withered. On the other hand, this one is growing well. So, the conditions are the same. Uniform lighting, and here also uniform lighting. So, in the same condition, you see that heritability is 100% here, and here too it is 100%. That is, from the genes, as we talked about, what does heritability indicate? What is the contribution of genes? So, the contribution of genes is 100%, and the light is also uniform. Still, you say that one is deficient, and one is sufficient or normal. So, why is that one normal? Because that impact, that effect, is entirely on the environment. So, both have similar resources. Ultimately, why is it? It's because of the environment. If it were 100 here, then you would say that a significant factor is also influencing this particular trait at the genetic level. What is a trait? It's a basic thing. But even then, there are some things that you might not understand. So, you should immediately ask. As basic as possible. Sometimes I say I am talking about religion, we are talking about God. Everyone knows what God is. But if you don't know, understand this, it's okay. Ask what God is, sir. So, such doubts of yours should be cleared. Clarity of concepts should be formed. It's a very good thing because if it's not cleared now, it will be very clear. If you sit for UPSC now, and it wasn't there in 8th or 10th grade, or you didn't do anything, you just memorized it and reached UPSC. You should have clarity on your optional. Sometimes questions are asked about your anthropology studies, "tell me this, tell me that." Unfortunately, the same thing is asked for which your conceptual clarity is not formed. So, the whole game is spoiled there. And for that, whatever time it takes, whatever effort it takes, ask as basically as you need to. We are here to solve your doubts. So, how do we talk about traits? What are traits? Like height, being tall, being short, you are talking about a trait. You call it a characteristic in Hindi. So, for trait, the best term, perhaps many of you can relate to, is character or characteristics. It's mostly known to you, but for those who don't know, even helping one or two people is enough if they don't know. What you read here, because you need to know genetic principles, so you have learned what proportion of the effect on something is genetic and what is environmental. You see the dimensions or methods used to create foster children here. In twin studies, in foster studies, and in twin studies. What happens here? First, let's understand twins. How many types of twins are there? There are two types. One is called identical twins, and the other is monozygotic or dizygotic twins. What happens in one? Here you see that two sperm are with two eggs, fusing there. So, in that condition, you see. And in identical twins, what happens? There is one egg, and you see it fusing there. It fused. There are not two eggs, not two eggs. So, from this fusion, what do you see? The formation of identical twins. You are talking now. So, I am not able to ask because I don't know if you know this basic concept or not. But in the live class, of course, we do that with the students. So, here you see that the fusion of one egg and one sperm. So, let's say one gamete is formed. We have shown the gamete here like this. And after this, you divide it into two parts. So, what do you see there? That single sperm, single egg, if we divide it further, it splits into two parts at the zygotic level. Formation happens. Whereas here, it's the opposite. Here, two separate ones are forming. So, here too you will see two individuals, here too you will see two. But there is a difference. So, here you see that identical twins share all their genes. All the genes will be the same. And both were formed through the same sperm. The existence of both is possible. Their intelligence is also the same, their way of talking, all other behavioral aspects are the same. So, you would say that intelligence is entirely a genetic component. That is, both children, who had the same genes, were kept in different environments, and even then, both became equally intelligent. So, you would say that intelligence has this genetic component. I am giving an example. If it happened like this, you would believe it. Many researches have shown that the environment also has an effect on intelligence, or the society you are in. Here you see. Whereas in the second method, the 420 method, what happens is that two twins are placed together. In twins, even if you are placing identical twins, there is a different method. If you are placing non-identical twins, it's a different method. One more thing, and foster children, where you place different children, who are raised. Studies are done here. There are twin studies, adoption studies, different studies that we explain in detail in the live batch, what their observations were. Homes are graded as poor, very poor, or you talk about good, medium, average, and the last one. So, people are placed in all three, and then checked again. So, they want to know the same thing. What do they want to know? Heritability. What proportion of the effect, or on what thing is the effect, is due to the environment, and on what thing is the effect? What is the genetic makeup of a human? Cell studies, especially there, you study chromosomes. Study the chromosome pattern. Chromosomes are a basic thing, about which many people, even those in science, forget after many years. So, they don't remember chromosomes. So, we explain to them after representing the entire structure, that look at the chromosomes. What are chromosomes? How are they useful when we are talking about genetic concepts? How many differences do you see based on structure? We tell you about telocentric, acrocentric. We tell you about metacentric, submetacentric, metacentric chromosomes. All these things. What is a centromere? What is a telomere? And all these things about light bands and dark bands are explained to you in the live class. So, in cytogenetics, the major portion you have to study is all these things. Chromosomes. Why are you studying chromosomes? Because our genetic composition is related to them. If there is any problem at the level of modification or their level, then only your entire disorder or disease or any modification is physically seen. So, when you study all these things, you get an idea of at what level the error occurred. And studying chromosomes is called karyotyping. Karyotyping is nothing but the arrangement of chromosomes you see. In the form of larger chromosomes to smaller chromosomes. You know that there are 23 pairs. That is, 46 individuals. Pairs mean 23 pairs, meaning 46, 46 individual chromosomes you see. Among them, based on their nature, there are two types, which you have learned in childhood. One is autosomes, and the other is sex chromosomes. Sex chromosomes, which are very important for your genetic makeup, which are passed on to your future generation, to your child. So, that information, all those things, if there is any problem in your physical features, that's why you...

Let's see if there is an accident, if you get injured, okay? Then you will not see it being carried forward to the next generation. Rather, if there is any problem with the sex chromosomes, which are the X and Y chromosomes, then that can be. It's not that it's always going to be carried forward. The principle of inheritance also applies there, and after that, you can decide. For example, take the case of color blindness, or if you take hemophilia, thalassemia, sickle cell anemia. There are many such disorders whose heritability we are seeing here. Sorry, we calculate the inheritance there, and in this way, whether they will go to the next generation or not, the method of studying that is explained to you in this unit. Let's look at karyotyping first. What are these attached to you? You can see chromosomes arranged in pairs. Up to the 23rd pair, from the first chromosome to the 22nd, all of these are autosomes, meaning non-sex chromosomes, that you are seeing. And look at them according to size. This is the largest one you are seeing, and by the time you reach here, it becomes the smallest. So, in a way, testing is done, sorting is done of the chromosomes, and their image is kept here, spread out. Sometimes it was also drawn, but now the image is captured through photographic, what you call optical methods. And when you are looking at it in detail, when you are studying the banding that appears, you can figure out if there is any problem or not, if there is any problem at a particular site or not. So, you get a big version here, a pictographic representation of individual chromosomes. And if there is any problem somewhere, you immediately catch it, like, oh, on chromosome number 3, you are finding out from the banding, or you are seeing some problem here. Because of this, this disorder might be happening. This helps you a lot in studying someone's genetic makeup, to know the basis of any disease or disorder. At the end, you are seeing the 23rd one. Instead of writing 23rd here, it is written as X chromosome or Y chromosome here, and you are seeing the problem here. This is what happens in karyotyping. In a way, you have arranged it by size, from largest to smallest. What was asked next from the next generation? It was pedigree analysis. What is pedigree analysis? Just like you see a family tree, it is like this. I think you must have read it in your 10th-grade book. Family trees like this are made. What is the purpose of making it? By making it, you can study the chances, you are studying the inheritance pattern, and you are studying the chances of any disease being passed on to the next generation. Whether you talk about color blindness, hemophilia, or all other diseases, it follows a pattern. And if you look at it through that, you can understand the entire mode and mechanism of inheritance better, how it is going to affect, what are the chances. And here, different signs and symbols are used, like squares. There is another thing here. Pedigree is very similar to genealogy, which you call family history. When you are studying in enterprises, studying in families, even in tribes, we sometimes discuss. It is made in a similar way, but there, a square symbol is used for males, whereas here you are seeing a triangle. Okay? So, there is social inheritance, and here there is biological inheritance that you are seeing. For medicinal values or for applying medical principles, and there, you are understanding genealogy more. This is how property inheritance happens, then socioeconomic things are inherited, you study them. Through what? Through generally, you are not using it for medical purposes. You are using it to understand social types, to understand social patterns, whereas here you are seeing a symbol for male, one for female, affected male. Affected male means when you are studying a particular disease, for example, color blindness. If you see it like this, then you will say that that person has color blindness, you are seeing it in that male. Similarly, if a circle is shaded like this, or crossed, as you see in this, it means death. So, in this way, different symbols are used. Okay? Here you are seeing, and this bar is representing their progeny. The line you are seeing, and this one connected at the top, to which all are connected, you call it a sibling bar. It tells that all are siblings. So, I think you have understood pedigree in a summarized form. Next, if you talk about it, karyotyping has been explained to you. Biochemical and immunological methods are also seen, as well as DNA technology methods. Biochemical, meaning, based on biochemistry, how you study genetic principles, where you are talking about many things happening at the molecular level, many things happening at the serological level, like blood types, blood grouping, seeing blood groups in many, seeing Rh in many, seeing MNS in many. So, based on this, how can you study and understand genetic principles? Sometimes the distribution of recessive alleles is negative, they have a lot of MS, and the other is absent. In this way, to understand many principles, serological, immunological factors are also used. Isoenzymes, different antibodies are there. You must have studied this, I think in 10th grade, this was also there for those who had biology. They must have studied it. You get to read about different antigens, antibodies, A, B, D, E, all these you are seeing. So, how can you use them too? You see that in immunological methods. We have talked about serological. At the DNA level, you use recombinant DNA technology. For which, if you want, we will put the anthropological material there, you can see it there too. You can also understand here what it is. To study, basically, it is an experiment that assesses the genetic and environmental influence on a trait using monozygotic. What does MZ mean? What does DZ mean? What does dizygotic twins mean? By studying pairs of dizygotic twins. Here you are seeing how, with the help of recombinant DNA technology. So, recombinant DNA technology is basically what? It is an advanced technique. Through which you get the facility to do alternation. For example, many people are unable to form insulin, insulin synthesis is not happening. Which is produced in the body, which you talk about diabetes. So, it becomes very crucial there. So, you extract the gene of interest from another individual or from another organism, which is the insulin gene, and through a vector, you integrate it into the plasmid, vector meaning, what you call a vehicle. And introduce it into the other individual, join it. You join both, and then you introduce that thing into the patient, meaning, into the one in whom you are seeing its deficiency or non-formation. So, in this way, with the help of science, we are studying and understanding biological genetic principles and also seeing their applications, how they are going to help. Next, you must have read all the rules. You must have read Mendel's different laws, the law of independent assortment, the law of segregation, the law of dominance. So, all these things of Mendelian genetics are seen within this unit. Here you are seeing single factor, multifactorial, lethal, sublethal, and polygenic inheritance. So, single factor is what? That thing which you see changing due to one factor is called single factorial inheritance. Next, what is multifactorial inheritance? Here, the characteristic that is produced, those characteristics, or you talk about it, it is defined as a trait or characteristic produced by the action of several genes. That's why it is called multifactorial. By many things, and along with or without the interplay of environmental factors. Meaning, you are seeing a trait, a character, and many genes and along with them, perhaps environmental factors may or may not be present, both together are affecting it. Then you say it is multifactorial. As the name suggests, multifactorial. So, what are the multifactors? Environmental factors are also there, genetic factors are also there, and even in genetic factors, you are seeing many genes influencing a particular character. Take the example of human eye color. Many genes affect it. Similarly, there are many such traits where one gene influences many characters. In many places, you see that a different gene, say gene A, is responsible for short height. Let's write this down. So, here one gene has one function, whereas here you are talking about a particular characteristic, if you talk about height, and behind it, if you consider the effect of many genes, and along with that, the effect of the environment can also be there or not, then what will you say? It is multifactorial. Many times you will see confusion in different sources. They equate multiple inheritance with polygenic inheritance, but this is wrong. In polygenic inheritance also, different genes are included, but there you are seeing their cumulative or additive effect. Meaning, due to their addition, due to their cumulative effect, the thing you are seeing reflected is affecting the character. But there is never an environmental factor. Here, what did we talk about? That environmental factors may also be present. But inside, when we talk. So, this is the difference. Environmental proportion is not seen at all there. The presence of genes can also result in death. There are different types of these. These are all lethal, they are combined. Meaning, the difference between the two is that in one, you live for some time, meaning, until maturity, until sexual maturity, and then you die. And in the other, your death happens at a very early age. So, lethal genes, as the name suggests, the presence of which can result in detrimental effects, and even death is seen. In most cases, you call them lethal, meaning, what you can call deadly. So, you are seeing those types of genes. Next, we talk about 9.3. Here you can read the concept of genetic polymorphism and selection in population. You must have read the laws of Hardy-Weinberg. Okay? What does Hardy-Weinberg say? That under normal conditions, if you talk about it, you will not see any changes. It is talking about the total sum of all genetic frequencies. And for that, it states that some conditions must be met. And what are the factors that can affect the equilibrium, the equilibrium of the Hardy-Weinberg principle? So, these are all the factors. Meaning, one factor is mutation. Isolation, different factors are acting differently. Meaning, if there is migration, then it will naturally change. So, some populations that were there are going somewhere, so naturally, the equilibrium will be disturbed. Mutation has occurred, change has happened, so you will see that isolation is necessary. If isolation is not maintained, then you see that it is being disturbed. In this way, many things, genetic drift, are disturbing the Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium. Let's start with social anthropology. In the marathon, I told you that there are two types of relationships or kinship. One, which you call consanguineous, and the other, non-consanguineous. Consanguineous means those people with whom you are related by birth, your parents, your siblings, and your other relatives, who are related to you by birth. Whereas non-consanguineous are relatives with whom you become related by marriage or adoption, in a way, you see that when you get married to someone, you become related to someone through them. So, that is non-consanguineous. So, here it is asked about consanguineous relationships, meaning, marriages between relatives. Meaning, talking about siblings, talking about cousins. You have to read about it and tell whether it is a wrong thing or a right thing. If you are studying in physical anthropology, then ethics are not being discussed here. In social anthropology, you read this in the context of incest taboos, and there, in the sense of social control, and as norms, as values, it is being discussed ethically, morally. Here, the discussion is scientific. Whether marriages between siblings, cousins, or parallel cousins, if marriages happen between them, do you see any detrimental effects? And we see two types of research or two types of opinions on this. One is, yes, you see it. Because if you are continuously marrying people who are related to each other, then what do you see? Inbreeding depression. Meaning, the viable traits, the viable characteristics that could come from outside are not coming. You see that one individual might have a particular disease, and if the other individual also has it, then in the next generation, it will be transmitted. If inbreeding continues, then a sufficient or good gene from outside will not be able to come because you are marrying within the same family line. The genes of the family will continue in a single line. External genes will not be seen coming. Many people say, no, in the course of time, in the short term, it might cause some problems, talking about one or two generations. But over the course of a long period, it is seen that the consanguineous relationships are very good, and in a way, they are helping us maintain and promote genetic health. So, different people describe it at length. The first point is their opinion, and its counter-argument. The second point is that. Against that, we don't have enough detailed expandable time because out of this, we are going to finish. It is thought that around this time, 40 minutes have already passed when we are talking about this. Here you are seeing that consanguineous village and understood. Next thing here is talking about genetic load. Genetic effect of this. You have seen that the phenomenon of genetic effect is also important to understand when you read this particular topic. What is the meaning of genetic load? In any population, the proportion or ratio of what? Of deleted genes. Meaning, of lethal genes, or of deleted, bad things. To what extent is their promotion seen there? You read that under genetic load. I hope this part is clear to you. Next, if you talk about multifactorial inheritance, it ends here. In this also, we have to explain and understand many topics. So, here you have chromosomes and chromosomes. So, first of all, here is the methodology, numerical and structural chromosomal aberration. What does aberration mean? We talked about any change in the configuration of the chromosome. Because it is influencing your genetics, then naturally, if you see any change in the chromosome, it affects your genetic makeup, and it can be of different types. It is not necessary that it is happening in a particular fashion. If a problem arises from this, a particular problem, then a particular type of disorder is produced. And you see another type of pattern, which causes another type of disturbance or disorder. So, in this way, multiple types of diseases and disorders are notified in the general chromosomal pattern. Now, if you distinguish this in a broad sense, it can be of two types. First, structural, second, numerical. What is structural? There is a numerical change, meaning, a change in number, or a chromosome is removed, which can be due to multiple cases. For example, you see deletion. Because of that, what happens? One is reduced, one or two are reduced, as many as are deleted. It is possible that there is an addition. It is possible that there is duplication. Duplication means, naturally, the number increases, one more is added. It is possible that you see substitution. Sorry, substitution. Due to all these things, numerical changes occur. Meaning, the number will either decrease from 46 to 47, 48, 49, or it will decrease from 46 to 45, 44, 43. In this way, numerical changes occur.

When you talk about structure, what is in the structure? The structure of the chromosome is being affected. This is how it can happen. What we talked about here, substitution. First, this is a chromosome. This is its expression. This is present, and this is present. And if this comes from here and reaches here, then in a way, it is causing a change in the structure. You might even see an inversion, where the chromosomes were arranged, and an inversion happened in them, meaning they got inverted, the structure changed. These structural changes are also affecting what? The genetic makeup of people. Where is the problem? You can see it. If numerical changes have occurred, then when you look at the entire karyotype, you will see additional chromosomes. It is possible that some chromosomes are seen less. So, a numerical aberration has occurred. Or you see that an inversion or something has happened, and you say, "Oh, a structural aberration has occurred, and that's why there's a problem here." So, these can also be divided in different ways. And if you look based on this, many disorders are produced, which are written here. Okay. Due to aberrations in sex chromosomes, there are also in autosomes, and in sex chromosomes. So, what is discussed in your syllabus here is the effect you are seeing due to aberrations in sex chromosomes. First, what is the condition here? It is here, an XXY. You are seeing this, meaning there is an extra one. 47. Plus, many people might not recognize this term. We are also being told a chart for this. So, you are understanding this. It's the same thing. There is a whole concept of addition and deletion, where where there should have been a certain number, either they have become less or they have become more. Okay. So, you are seeing here a condition of 45 + XXY. Okay. What can be the total effects that you are seeing here? That is, an extra X comes and gets attached here. Okay. What do we talk about next? Klinefelter syndrome in males. You see this in males. Okay. Here, sexual development is underdeveloped. It is seen in males. So, a male is suffering from this. Whoever has this will be sexually affected. Second thing, you will also see infertility in that particular male. Third thing, you talk about facial and body hair. That is, the secondary and primary sexual characteristics. At the primary level, it has been affected, and it is also affecting secondary sexual growth. Where you see secondary sexual growth, what is it? The growth of pubic hair in males, or the growth of facial hair. So, you are seeing that being affected here. Okay. Development delays are seen. Development, meaning your development, growth, you are seeing delays or problems in that. You are facing that. Turner's syndrome. You talk about Turner's syndrome here. After Klinefelter's, it is given here. We are giving it in a summarized form here. When you see this same concept in live classes, it is explained to you through a whole chart, how addition and deletion happen. In fact, we don't have time to provide that here. So, many students who did not pay attention in 11th and 12th, all these things are taught to you in childhood. Whether you are from science or humanities, still many students forget. Of course, you move so many years ahead, so you don't remember things. Don't worry about that. When you study this in live batches, first the whole concept of ID and price is taught, and then we tell you about numerical or structural changes. Similarly, there is another disorder here, which you call Turner's syndrome. In Turner's syndrome, there is an addition. Here you are seeing a missing. Okay. A chromosome is missing. That's why this 'O' written here, people call this 'O' as 'null' or 'zero' too. Meaning, there should have been another X here, and it is not there. So, only 45 + X remains. So, you call it just X, or people put null or zero here. What does that null and zero represent? It indicates a missing chromosome. Okay. So, here you have monosomy of a chromosome, meaning one is missing. Only one X chromosome is present. At number 41, where it should have been, it is gone from there. So, 45 + X remains. This leads to short stature. Okay. This condition is seen in females. Second, what is it? Lack of ovarian development. Ovarian development is also affected due to this. Just like it was happening in males, and due to that, their sexual characteristics were disturbed. In this way, it is happening in females, so the characteristics of females will also be disturbed. Second, you will say that secondary sex characteristics of females will also not be seen developing properly. So, what is it? Breast development will also not be proper. Abnormalities will be seen in the neck region. Skeletal disorders will be seen. At the skeletal level too, many disorders are prompted there. That your disorders are manifesting due to what? Chromosomes. Next thing, there are many other examples, which if we deal with here, it will take a lot of time. Here too, problems are seen at the level of different chromosomes. Down syndrome. I hope you know about Down syndrome. It was discovered by people who knew about it first. Okay. So, you see that due to this, different changes are seen, and changes in different chromosomes are occurring. These changes are seen occurring on a particular chromosome. For example, Down syndrome is seen occurring on the 21st. Okay. And here, what you are reading now, until now you have read about sex chromosomes. Here, what you have read is about autosomes. Whether it is Down, or Patau, or Edward, or... meaning, it affects the chromosomes, and its effect is something else. What is that effect? For example, what is affecting the 21st is what? Our batches started on the 25th, and you are seeing that the chromosome on the 21st is affected. There, you are seeing Down syndrome. There is a problem with chromosomes number 13 and 18. Chromosomes number 13 and 18, you are seeing problems in both of them. In Trisomy, you saw short stature. That it is missing, you find it there. Then see short length. All these things are affecting the manifestation. Due to all these, problems are seen occurring. Next thing after this, it is talked about here, genetic imprints in human diseases and genetic screening, genetic counseling, and human gene profiling, gene mapping, and genomics studies. All these are talked about. What is the essence of all this? Dealing with length. And if you say it briefly, what does it mean? Genetic screening. What is genetic screening? In a way, you are reading things, understanding what is at the genetic level. That is, by studying the genetic makeup of humans, you are identifying at what level there is a problem or not. So, just like when you come for UPSC, you have counseling, right? How much time should you use resources for, or which option should you choose? You have many queries. So, counseling does the same phenomenon. If two individuals come for marriage, what is the probability that their offspring, their children, will have the diseases present in them? Or it might even be that the parents themselves don't know that they have a disorder, but it can happen in their child because it might be in a latent form, but it can manifest in the child, meaning it can be seen. So, they go to the doctor and get this whole screening done, and genetic counseling. They understood and realized that yes, there is a risk here. Then they told them about the risk properly, told them all its pros. But in the end, it is in the hands of the parents. If they are not able to bear it, then even after everything, parents decide to continue with the baby. That is, if they want to keep it even after this, then it is up to them. Okay. So, in genetic counseling, at different levels, different things are being told there. So that you can ignore any unforeseen condition that might arise at the genetic level in the process, or take some corrective step. Sometimes, it is available, meaning you can correct it. Sometimes, it is unavoidable, meaning you cannot correct it. Human DNA profiling is like tagging. You are giving a tag. You have completely isolated the DNA, extracted the DNA segment. There is complete sequencing, and then you do labeling. There are tandem repeats at different levels. We are also telling you that in live classes. There are short regions. Short nucleotide regions that you see. There are patterns like this at different levels. And through that, what are you doing? You are linking the DNA, human DNA profiling, tagging, identifying. You do genetic mapping, so you get an address. You see so many genes at the genetic level. Okay. When you do genetic mapping or gene mapping, you get its exact location. That in this whole pool, where so many genes are present, where is your interest? Just like we were reading about insulin now, so you want to extract the insulin gene. So, how will you locate it? In this way, in the genetic makeup, you can locate its address, where its address is, where it is located, so that if we ever need it, it becomes our zero interest, then we can isolate it. Okay. After that, whether to amplify it, or integrate it, or like it, what we will follow is up to us. If you move from 9.4 to 9.5, then here you are talking about race and racism. This is a quite significant unit, and it is significant because many times in Indian and tribal anthropology, there are parts where you need to know this unit well to read and understand. This unit tells you how India's population is divided on racial or ethnic grounds, and how classification happens. This unit tells you how those differences arise in human populations. That is, different races, you hear about three different major regions around the world. Caucasoid. If I talk about India, then we have talked about tribes and Indians. That is why every race's classification in 1915 was done. How did they classify the whole thing? That is in the Indian sense. Globally, different types, sorry, the entire global population has been classified into different human groups. So, here, the whole concept of race and how race is formed, how racial changes are seen occurring, all this is dealt with within this unit. Now, what are you seeing here first? If you talk about factors, then you talk about what? Qualitative factors, and other quantitative factors. What is qualitative? You talk about them in a qualitative nature, and quantitative is what you can count, you can measure. For example, blood. Even if it is blood, you cannot measure its color. You can say it is blue. That is a qualitative aspect, and you cannot measure it. Example. All these things you can measure, they are quantitative. Now, what are those characteristics, what are those traits? So, you also study based on these: on the basis of which trait, racial classification or race is studied. So, some traits are qualitative, which we talked about, the form of hair. Okay. Like color. These are qualitative. Based on these too, races are categorized, classification is given. And others are quantitative. Based on them too, the same thing is done. For example, if you talk about the form of the head, its shape, its proportion, it can be divided on different bases. Dolichocephalic, maybe mesocephalic, maybe brachycephalic. In dolichocephalic, you get a long, narrow, slender head. Okay. In mesocephalic, you get a medium-sized head. In brachycephalic, you get a broad head. So, the difference is directly established there. Similarly, if you talk about the nose, there are different measurements available for the nose. If the nose is this much to this much, then you call it leptorrhine. It is a thin nose. Okay. You get a long nose. It is seen more in the long nose. Another one is after leptorrhine, mesorrhine. You get it in length. You are talking like this. That is, it is a very broad nose. It is seen in the online population. Now you talk about hair. So, hair is also at different levels. One is at the level of form. Some people have curly hair, some have straight hair, some have frizzy hair, some have wavy hair. Different forms of hair. Hairline. The hairline is where your hair meets. Okay. So, it can be a V-shaped hairline. You can see a U-shaped hairline where your hair meets. Okay. Hairline. It can be based on thickness, or it is very thin, or you see it as medium. So, it is classified based on thickness. And there are multiple other factors on the basis of which all these things are done. There is also a separate index made. Martin, Mr. Martin, prepared a whole index. Based on this, if the height is this much to this much, then you call it this. If it is not that straight, then this. Long, very long, pygmy, short. Like this, he made an old table, and based on that, he classified the world's population. Counting various factors. In the eye, if you see, there is a special feature called the epicanthic fold. It is seen as a trademark feature of Mongoloids. Okay. So, every body part has been qualified. And finally, one important part is bursting the myth. That there is no such thing as race. Because you see, especially during World War I, World War II, it becomes very prominent. People start talking about superiority and inferiority based on racial connotations. That some races are superior, some races are inferior. Talking about intelligence. Some races are made to serve, for servants, and some races are to rule. These are the differences that you saw at the myth level. That such things are being said. Anthropology is also working to burst this. You are reading this in this unit. Then you are reading different classifications. Just like we read about India's classification. You know three important ones: S.S. Sarkar, G.S. Guha, and S. Risley. That is, Harbar Hope Risley. Similarly, in the global sense, you talk about Dixon's classification, Daniel's classification. At the serological level, that is, using blood groups. Okay. In different populations, some have A, some have B, some have AB, some have M, M, S. So, they did it on that basis. You see photolith. The classification of the whole world is given. We are reading that. So, all these things are given to you in this way, so that you get an idea of what is included here. So, race, the basis of race, and its biological meaning, what is its significance, you are seeing in this unit. I hope this particular session is clear to all of you. You have also understood what is seen in a summarized form, and you have also got an idea of what is said to be very scientific. There is no such thing. For example, if you talk about this unit, then you read that someone has less hair, someone has more hair, someone's is thick, someone's is frizzy, someone's is wavy. Such a form. All these things are coming under physical anthropology. But there is nothing in this that requires you to have studied science subjects in 11th, 12th, or graduation. All these are important. It's a very simple thing. Height is short, tall. What is the role of a science person in this? What formula are you applying there? What derivation are you looking at? What equation are you applying? I hope this particular part is very much clear to you, and there is no need of any background subject. And you will do it. The record is already available. Many others have also done it. All people are scoring well from a non-anthropology background. So, it is not a difficult field for you. For you.

It is going to be as easy as it was easy for all those people, reminding you once again, our batches start from April, and you can join our batches now, you can take admission, and you can read all these things in detail here. So, we have explained it in a summarized form so that you get good material for your revision. Now, the part that we are going to look at after this, okay, it will deal with the further units in Physical Anthropology. So, let's move to the next part. We have seen 9.1, we have seen 9.2, 9.5. Now let's go to the further last. Now we will proceed, the series will continue for a full three and a half to four hours, and here we will complete application-private things, which you can understand in at least one video, what all these things are here. You can see things in summaries. So let's go to the further unit, which is unit 9.6, in which you have to talk about different markers. Now, what are these markers, you know that from Aristotle to modern times, in the 18th century, there is a prominent thinker, Immanuel Kant. What does Immanuel Kant say? Anthropology studies the differences in humans, on a social-logical level and social level, and on the other hand, biological differences. Now, when anthropology is studying these differences, it will have some basis, okay. In the last unit, a little while ago, we talked about how racial differences are configured in human populations, and based on that, you are seeing ethnic diversity throughout in a flow. So, you are seeing that variety, that difference, that relationship in a continuous form. So, how is this ultimately coming into the population? Okay, that was about racial connotation, but races, on different concepts, whether you talk about heritage, environment, there are multiple factors whose intermingling leads to racial variations. Leaving those aside, you can also differ in human populations using various markers. Just like you make notes, in making UPSC notes, you have a tendency that sometimes you use a green or a neon-colored highlighter for a certain type of information, and on the other hand, you use an orange highlighter, or a third color, a pink highlighter, you mark multiple things. What does it mean to mark? It means you tag that this information, for example, if you are studying governors-general during the time of the PLC circle in modern history, then maybe you mark the name of the governor-general with orange color, mark their time period with another color, with a third color, your favorite color, blue, you mark what contribution they made or what their significance was. If there was no contribution, sometimes you have seen some ill measures coming in their tenure, what were they? Okay. So, this is a kind of highlighting. So, similarly, what happens from this highlighting that you used in notes? You understand the variations. Like, as soon as you see a particular color, neon, for example, you understand, oh, the governor-general's name in neon. So, revision becomes very easy. Okay, it's an orange color, this must be the timeline. So, you have to look at the timeline. So, I will just flip through and look at the orange color. So, this is how tagging is done. Markers among human populations are those components that help differentiate one individual from another, one group from another, a set of a population, a pool of a population, from another set or pool of a population. Now, let's know what the markers are. So, you can see the name of the unit, based on the population, you will see many markers. That is, if there is an infant, a toddler, as they slowly grow up from childhood to adolescence, go into puberty, and finally reach adulthood, towards the last stage, as they move towards senescence, in all these stages, some particular characteristic changes are occurring, which are differentiating individuals in that population at the population level, bringing variations in them. Okay, within the same population, in the same pool, there is a population pool, a particular set of individuals, there are some traits at the level of age, based on which you can make this differentiation. Similarly, male and female, or it's not right to say gender, because repeatedly we have cleared this concept, when gender is talked about, then you see that this concept comes. Okay, gender is a sociological concept, but we are going on biological, physical here, so we will call it sex. There, we are looking at the differential of biological male and biological female. So, at their level too, you will find variations in a similar population on certain aspects. Similarly, if you talk about some genetic markers also existing in human populations, then let's know what all these markers are. If you go into detail, in this particular unit, you divide them. You can take hemoglobin, you can take blood groups. So, you know that there are many types of blood groups. Okay, if you go all over the world, you will see multiple sets of blood groups existing. This will also be a blood group, okay. You will see variations in that too. Some are A blood group, some are B blood group, some are AB blood group, some are O, some are Rh negative, multiple sets are present. The next thing you see is that you also see Rh blood groups, okay. And after that, you go to MN blood groups as well. If you talk about India, from the UPSC point of view, you also see Bombay blood types, okay. And in this way, you are seeing multiple blood groups, and due to their existence, they also help as markers in the population, helping in generating variations. For example, one individual has Rh positive, another has AB positive. So, it represents variation in the population. Okay, between two individuals. This is based on blood groups. Hemoglobin is also like an ingredient, many differences are seen. The level of hemoglobin, or the types of hemoglobin, you see. If you go to the African continent, or even in South India, you see in multiple forms that HbS, that is, the hemoglobin of sickle cell anemia, this hemoglobin of sickle cell anemia, which you can say is a defect, okay. Or you can say its morphology has changed, its structure has changed. Okay, in the shape of a sickle cell it has come. Earlier, what was it like? Concave. So, based on that too, you see variations. If you go to the African continent, you will see a very high tendency of HbS among individuals. If you talk about thalassemia, there are multiple blood group resorts. Okay, this is at the hemoglobin level. If you talk about HbA, HbE, you see multiple blood group types existing in the population. Based on age, if you look at it, if you are talking about infants, you see embryonic hemoglobin. You see fetal Hb, that is, fetal hemoglobin, which is ultimately replaced, right? So, in this way, based on age, based on region, based on different types, their frequency changes. If you talk about how it changes based on sex, then you will say that it changes at the level of levels. That is, males have a particular level. When you go to get a blood group report, it shows the level of hemoglobin, and it also tells the average, like it should be minimum, maximum, these are your thresholds. If it is within this, then you consider it normal. You usually see that in the case of females, it is a bit lower. The average is a bit lower. Okay, in the case of males, it is higher. So, what is this telling you? It's telling you sex variation at the level of hemoglobin. Similarly, you also have blood and genes, okay. Based on that too, multiple transfusions, or even a couple of examples, we might have taken an example of transferrin here. We have taken examples of many enzymes here. That is how you are saying that variations are seen on multiple fronts, like age, sex, and other types of regional variations. The fat of the body, that is, adiposity, okay. You also see that it is seen in this way. For example, if you go to Africa, especially the southern part of Africa, there is an ethnic group, a tribal group, which is collectively called Khoisan by some groups. Okay, the language is called Khoisan. If you take the example of Khoisan, for example, you see a lot of fat accumulation in that. And what is this condition called? It is given the term steatopygia. So, if you ever use this term or search it on Google, you will understand more accurately that the lower back, the hip region, has a lot of fat accumulation. Okay, you are seeing fat accumulation there. Based on age too, adiposity keeps changing. Around 20, if you are talking about males, there is a period when fat accumulation slows down, and after that, it continues again from after 20. Okay. At the genetic level, if you talk about body types, that is, if you talk about somatotypes, we will come to that when we look at the growth unit. So, somatotypes, that is, you see various types of bodies. If you are talking about various types of bodies, then you will see ectomorph, endomorph, mesomorph, these different variations in body forms. Okay. So, based on that, you see that adiposity is decreasing, reducing. Based on physical activity, whether it's an athlete, a normal person, or a very lazy person, due to all these variations, you see such variations at different ages, among different populations. So, this fat accumulation, or in general if you talk about fat, can also be used as a marker. Pulse rate, pulse rate can also be used as a marker. Here it is given. If you talk about heart rate, pulse rate, for example, I gave you the example of Khoisan for fat characteristic, I gave you the example of Africa and South India to understand. So, in this way, when you are addressing this unit, you study different case studies to understand multiple forms of variation and to know these markers, how these markers differ across the globe, and how they help in identifying populations and identifying variations and differences among populations. So, there is nothing very special or very big in this unit. Particularly, you first read about all these markers that are given. If it is hemoglobin, then you go into very basic detail and explain what hemoglobin is first. Then you take its types, or use some examples. So, based on that, what difference do we see? Here, what you see is that in 1977, Owen studied this variation at the level of hemoglobin. We just talked about it, right? That the structural form can be at many levels, but he wanted to study it based on the level of hemoglobin, that is, its ratio, its quantity. And he considered the factor of age. Along with that, Parson was also included in his work, and the population on which he was working, what was its name? It was the Quebec Society, based in Canada. And when he does this study, what indication does he get? That from the age of 20 years to 60 years, the level of hemoglobin among the population, especially among the males in this population, it was maintained at 15.3. If you write it in short, it was maintained at 15.3. In females, if you talk about it, the peak of the hemoglobin level in females is reached at 13.5 grams per deciliter. That is, a difference of almost 2 from males is seen at the age of 14. So, here what is seen is that after the age of 14, the level of hemoglobin in boys is improving. Okay, it will keep improving and will reach this particular unit, which we mentioned above, whereas in females, it remains stagnant, becomes constant. Now, this difference of approximately 2 grams per deciliter, what is the reason for it? Menstrual losses among females, during the cycle, you see that due to the menstrual flow, the blood loss is occurring. Because of that, there is a difference of two grams per deciliter, that is, if you say two units, that difference is seen there. So, at the level of age and at the level of sex, they took both things. Okay, they took age, and they took sex as criteria, and based on that, using hemoglobin as a marker, they explained it. So, one case study presented two aspects here. If we talk about the second one, if you see that the rise of hemoglobin is a trend in primitive societies, it is greater than if you talk about urban or complex societies or advanced societies. Complex society means urban society, so you have seen this general trend. Around the second, you read about transferrins. What is transferrin? So, here we have defined it earlier because we have not defined it here. So, if a question comes from 9.6, first you have to talk about that marker. So, sometimes things are very basic, for example, you are asked about a cell, you have to define a cell. Everyone knows that we have been studying about cells since childhood, but here you have to define it, talk about the marker. In the introduction, you talk about that marker, and then you start explaining how you can use it as a case study. So, here, if you are looking, what is transferrin? Transferrin is globulin factors, present in the serum of the blood. Serum, you know, is present in blood serum, and they are capable of binding with the ferric ions in the blood, the ferric ions present in your blood, which you call it. Okay, they bind with it. In blood tissues, now you see that in normal individuals, you see this transferrin band. Here you see that there is one transferrin band, which is denoted by TFC. I hope you can see it. It is denoted by TFC, transferrin band. For example, like KFC you see, similarly, understand it is denoted by TFC. So, in normal individuals, you see only this one band of transferrin. But if you look at the population of Australian Aborigines, using transferrin as a marker, what you find is that here you see an extra band. That is, in total, you see two bands, and the second band is called DFD. One was TFC here, and in them, you see an extra band, which is what? DFD. So, in this way, you have understood population variation. So, from this, sometimes, there will be a couple more criteria, and from that, you will not be able to draw a conclusion that someone is superior or inferior. We have already talked about this in racism, that all these things are illusions. But we are just talking about how humans vary. We have talked about it in a social context, we have talked about it in an ethnic context. How do you see variations? When we were looking at Social Anthropology, didn't we talk about how marriage is found around the world, and the institution of marriage cannot be called a universal concept? The definition of it is a universal concept, and its definition is not seen as universal. So, there are many things here. Even in the current dynamic portion, the issue of sex becomes completely relevant for your coverage. If you talk about family systems, kinship terminology, you find variations everywhere. So, when you are studying that variation, what is the purpose of studying it? Don't think that if you study it here, what does it mean? TFC in Australian Aborigines, there is an extra DFD, so what does that mean to me? Your meaning is this, because in the end, you want to see how populations vary. So, at the sociological level, it is a bit interesting. Yes, our.

Here is the translation of the Hindi text into English, following your rules:

Here, this type of term, he is applying it. Uncle, maternal uncle, came to their place. What kind of time has been said? In some other society, or if there is a tribal group, a tribal population, then this thing is being seen by you. Okay. Social variations, all are being studied. In this way, similarly, here also there is no motto. The motto is only to know the variations. Coming at multiple levels, if you see an example, if you talk about some other markers, first you look here. If you talk about pulse rate or heart rate, based on that also you can study the differences. Let's take a straight example. If you are looking based on heart rate, then if you categorize the entire population based on age, then you will have newborns and infants, in them you will see 100 to 60 beats per minute. Meaning, the heart is beating very fast in infants, in small newborn babies. If you talk about children, meaning from one to 10 years, then in them it reduces to 72 to 120. And up to what age, for adults, that thing comes around 60 to 100 per minute in this range. This means, look, the entire population, and you are seeing it reduce. So, those who are very well-trained athletes today. Okay. And if you talk about markers, then first your sensory markers. Here it is given. Okay. It is talking about sensory perceptions. That based on this also, tell and comment. So in sensory perception, you can see, first of all, you all must have read in 11th, 12th, or I think yes, in 11th, 12th, maybe even before that. Color blindness, you have heard of it by name. Many people get very confused about colors, like green for blue, blue for green, in this way. Okay. They are not able to identify a particular sort of color. So an X-linked trait is being seen by you among the population. So that is affecting sensory perception, visual sensory perception. Can you tell how both are different? One more thing that you are seeing here, if you are talking about blood pressure, then a prominent scholar has divided blood pressure into three categories. One is hypersensitive, which you call hypertensive, meaning high blood pressure. Okay. The second is less than that, around which you are seeing, below the hypertensive cases and above normal. And the third, which we have taken as a case study here, is normative. So normotensive means blood pressure is almost normal. So a case study was done on this in India, and it was found that among the rural Indian population, this heart rate, sorry, the blood pressure is almost normal. So they do not have that many issues of hypertension. You are not seeing it, you are not seeing it. Coming back to the sensory perception, I think it is PTC. You check it once. PTC is a chemical. It is used as a marker. And when the test is done, it will be very little, a very small amount, in a very small quantity. You have to put it on your tongue. You have to keep your tongue out, and that thing is placed on it. Some people in the population can taste that thing, PTC, meaning they can differentiate the taste of PTC. And well, others in the population cannot taste it. They don't know anything, they don't feel anything. Based on this, based on PTC, those who can taste are called tasters, and those who cannot are called non-tasters. Again, there is no superiority or inferiority. Those who can do it, it's not a great ability in them. But yes, it helps in differentiating. At a biological level. Studies have found that females are more likely to be tasters. If you look in the general population, then females are more tasters than others. These are the markers that you study, you should understand them. Especially coming back to the next unit. Your unit, what do you call it? This is 9.7, and it is talking about concepts and methods of ecological anthropology. Here, ecological anthropology is being discussed. Now, what is ecological anthropology? Ecological anthropology is nothing but it is studying the human interaction with the environment. And in this, you are seeing different approaches. Okay. What is environmental determinism saying? It is saying that all your activities, whatever processes you are doing and are doing, and there are many such that instead of environmental security, they are trusting the environment as superior. They believe that humans have become so progressive now, they are able to use science and technology so well that they can manipulate their immediate environment, manipulate or control it. Meaning, now the environment or ecology is not controlling humans, but the opposite is happening. The opposite thing is happening, which is what? Which is that man is controlling, manipulating the environment and the ecology. You are seeing that if humans are feeling very cold, feeling very hot, what will they do? They will start wearing clothes. Okay. They will use that kind of fabric. So this is cultural adaptation. If they have to preserve things for a long time, then they have made automobiles, they have made technology, different tools. And these are helping in manipulating the environment. Okay. All the processes around humans are very much dependent on their immediate surroundings, their geography, their cultural history, their environment. Okay. What is the relevance of ecology in anthropology? Their geography, their environment. They are achieving it. They are using animal skin for clothing. Okay. And other kinds of things. You are seeing that using branches, wood, all these things, they are making their homes. It is helping in housing. They are consuming plants and animals. Even today, you are seeing that thing. So their feeding or their dietary pattern is also directly dependent on ecology and their environment. So all these processes are directly connected to their environment in some way or the other. And in ecological anthropology, you study these kinds of principles. One more thing that you are studying, because when humans are interacting with the environment, they have to make some adaptations or adjustments. So the entire process of that adjustment can be divided into two layers here. The color of the moth changed, and in what way are you seeing that a selective pressure started coming towards them? Okay. The white-colored moths started appearing clearly there, and the lizards and other predatory species made them their prey. But during the industrial revolution, you are seeing dark shades on tree trunks and other places. Because of that, the darker shades of moths started surviving there. So this is an adjustment you are seeing. Of course, the moth itself did not make that kind of change. But we are saying that humans are influencing the environment by interacting with it, trying to control it, and are able to manipulate it. Your adaptation, and the second is your here, space, and the other is physical or biological. Now, what is the difference between both? You know about adjustment. There should be no difference or problem with this. Now, it has two forms: adaptation and acclimatization. Adaptation is a permanent type of change that you see in the population. For example, if you go to a colder climate, or talk about short races, then in races, we read a term just now: leptine, longer, narrow noses are seen. Why? Because the climate there is very cold. And if the cold air directly enters your nose, if your nose bridge, the entire length, is not long, is not narrow, then you will see that it directly enters through the roots inside your nose and will cause you trouble. Okay. And if your climate is colder, then by the time it enters and travels completely, it will become warmer. You will not see such things there. Okay. In height, the extremities, their size, you are seeing it there. Just where you are able to adjust to the environment in relation to the environment by making some changes in practices at a social or cultural level. In which you can include all these things like clothing, housing, diet. You can change your practices, whatever cultural aspects are there, in that way. If it is a very hot region, then you rest your activities during the day. Sahara works like this, that society restricts its work during the day. If you go to Kullu Manali, if you travel, it is a very beautiful place, you should go sometime. Come out of your preparations, take a break, then you can definitely go there. Okay. In Sikkim, there are many such places, Nathula, Lachung. Many people who were with me, if I say this is not happening with me, then yes sir. They are not heroes. I saw that there were two to three castes with us there, and the climate was very cold. Because we were there in January. Often in January, entry is not even allowed there. So when we reach there, out of three vehicles, if there were about 16 people, then around 14 or 13 of them were completely having problems because it was a higher altitude, very high altitude. So you are seeing a deficiency of oxygen in breathing. Okay. So people are doing other things, different kinds of activities that people are telling them, instructing them, trying to show them. So you will see many changes at that time. But when you come back from there, those changes, they will not work there. If you come back to the plains. So what these things are depicting? These things are depicting a temporary adjustment. So I hope you have understood acclimatization, adjustment, adaptation, social, biological, all these things. This is a chart through which you can see how environment, biology, and culture are interacting. Even if you are studying the initial symptoms in physical, that is, which we have kept a little at the end, the part of primatology, then there is an important concept called bio-cultural. Bio is understood, but what about cultural? What does culture mean? Like religion is evolving, or marriage is evolving from group marriage to polygamy, monogamy. What are you talking about? Whatever we read in theories, or you are saying, how society has progressed from stages of barbarism and civilization. You are talking about the evolution of family. How are you talking about animism, fetishism, naturalism? How all these things finally came to monotheism, polytheism? Okay. When we are talking, we say that different aspects of biology and culture interact together and work as one. And a change in one thing impacts the other, and both things are moving together, and are working in human evolution. For example, our ancestors were arboreal in nature. Okay. Among different hypotheses, you also see the arboreal hypothesis. So the arboreal hypothesis says that our ancestors, even if you study our early primates now, you will see that many of them are made for living in trees. Their fingers will be longer, made for gripping branches. Okay. The presence of a prehensile tail is seen. So all these features were present in our ancestors. But gradually, the theory of savanna says that the forest cover, the longer trees, are gradually decreasing, and grasslands are appearing there. Okay. From one branch to another, how to go from one branch to another? So they also had to change their mode of adaptation. And it shifts directly from arboreal to what? The shift goes towards the ground, meaning terrestrial habit. So the rest of the things that were according to arboreal, they will also change. You are seeing that in today's population, modern humans, and in our other fossil records, the prehensile tail has disappeared. You see the reason for the coccyx. Okay. If you study, then in a way, it is not present in us. I mean, it is present in us, and you see the appendix. It is not present. So in a way, what do you call it? Dispensation has occurred. It is no longer needed. Adapting to the conditions here was also necessary. Over time, you see that when there is a savanna-like condition there, if they were quadrupedal, meaning walking on four legs as they used to be, then many times they would not be able to see behind bushes or grasses if there was any predator. To counter that, a new adaptation, a new thing, is seen. That was what? The start of the erect posture is seen. And bipedalism is original. Meaning, they start walking on two legs. You see that standing like us, that is seen in the beginning. And for a period of time, you see early evidence up to the Australopithecus. Okay. And gradually, when you come to Homo erectus, talking about Homo erectus, this thing becomes more prominent. After that, locomotion. Now, when the biological change happened in them, they are able to utilize it, they are able to walk on two legs. So one thing happened. What was that thing? That now they have hands, and both hands are free. Using that, what can they do? Now they can hunt animals and eat them. You see a dietary shift. Earlier they were arboreal, so they were dependent on fruits and other things, feeding on trees, on things found here and there. But they are hunting animals, cooking, making different kinds of tools, interacting with the environment. Things like clothing come, things like housing come. So all these are cultural changes you are seeing. Meaning, from the change in biology, how many cultural changes have come. They can take good care of their newborns. You see they can hold, carry them. They can see from a distance. If they are upright, on two legs, then they can see from a distance if there is any threat behind the grass or in the grasses. They can easily map the threat. Similarly, you also study how many cultural changes translate into biological changes. Multiple case studies, examples. If you are not yet, then let me remind you again that you can join our batch. The batch on 30th of April is ending. In fact, you are seeing 30th April here, it has already passed. So let's be hopeful that our next batches will most probably start in May. Our next batch starts. So you can join to get all the insights. Here you are listening to the summary, right? Listening to things like a discourse. How things change, what works, and what you have to study. So you are getting an idea. It will work as a revision for you. The entire marathon session will work as very good material. And if you enroll in our batches, and you are getting the handwritten notes provided, structured, you are getting it. I hope that by the time you join the next batch, there will be further improvements. We will have added many more things to it. And time is also wasted. After April, many people are starting fresh here. Those who want to give Prelims completely, see, by the time your batches start, you will have also given Prelims. The first classes, whenever they start, you will be in a very relaxed, completely viable mode. Okay. So I hope you have understood this part. We talked about how biology and cultural things are connected, and how environmental factors are acting on them. Savanna or grassland ecosystem came, so you saw that they had terrestrial adaptation, and when terrestrial adaptation came to them, then there was a change in their biology, meaning erect posture. And due to the erect posture, their two hands became free, which allowed them to develop many cultural things. And when their culture changed, they were also able to influence the environment. They could make their dwelling places for shelter. Interacting with the environment, meaning they found rocks, broke the rocks, and using hammering and various processes, they could craft stone tools. They could drink river water. Using the clay from the ground or environment, or some other soil, they could fashion pottery.

Okay, the branches of trees and the other components of the trees, and by doing that, they are also able to make bows and arrows, and what you can call wooden tools. So, in this unit, you are studying how everything interacts. It's in ecology, right? And you are also told about some adaptations. For example, I just told you about my personal story, through the Sikkim story, you can call it Sikkim Diaries, which was about the altitude climate, then how you adapt based on the change in altitude. And we told you the case study of the hypoxic condition, which you are also calling sickness, altitude sickness. So, in this way, when you are in a batch and studying in detail, that is not possible in. So, what is the reputation of cold climate in the country, cultural education, I think we have discussed here what you are seeing in colder climates, right? In different climates, you have to study different kinds of bodily changes and cultural adaptations. You have to study both here in this particular unit. Next is your unit pertaining to epidemiology. In epidemiology, you are studying disease-causing factors, and the spread of disease is a major focus. How the disease spreads, especially after this unit, was in the limelight and under scrutiny before COVID. But since after COVID, I think this unit has come into the spotlight. You can see that quite a few questions are coming from this unit. In this unit, you are studying the concept of health. Health is a concept that we have been memorizing since childhood from books. Health is a state of total well-being. This is a particular definition that is always taught to us, and the teacher emphasizes to clarify what you understand by health. That when you are physically healthy, that is health. No, health is a process. The definition of the United Nations, the definition of WHO, says that there should be social well-being, there should be physical well-being, there should be mental well-being, there should be economic financial well-being. When all these things are present, then you are actually surviving and living happily. And that will be called health. So, what are the different factors of health? You study the aspects of etiology here. It's not a very big unit; we cover it briefly. Now, we will spend a little more time on this, do some extra things on it, because after COVID, this unit, according to me, is quite significant. So, some things, some points that can be asked from it, we definitely go into a little length when we deal with it in the batch, compared to earlier times. For example, in earlier times, if we cover this unit in three days, and let's say in 9 to 12 years, so now we will be taking a good amount of time. Especially, there are questions on protein malnutrition, which you call. And this was a very important thing that was discussed, but now we can focus on multiple aspects here. Under unit 9.8. After this, if you talk about 9.8, then there is another big unit, comparatively, if you compare it with ecology. So, this one is a bigger unit, just like race was a bigger unit. Although it might not seem big here, a significant portion in physical anthropology is devoted to race. A very small unit, a very big and the biggest unit, we have already told you. A marathon had to be made separately for it, it was so big. Which one was it? In the timeframe, we have covered your sorry. Here you are seeing that anthropological theories have been covered in 900. Unit six is lengthy in itself. In many places, in many institutes, I don't know why, but they are spending around 60s to complete. So, people take a month if classes are for two hours. In our case, the lecture schedule is not given there. The two-hour ones are also not completely two hours of lectures. Out of that total timeframe, a good portion is for discussing model answers and clearing your doubts. So, let's say in a unit, you will have small doubts, and your doubts will be cleared in 10-15 minutes. There is scope, there is talk about society, there is talk about the development of anthropology, marriage, and other small things are discussed there. So, you won't have doubts there. Many units, like complete doubt sessions, we hold. If you have more doubts, it's 90 minutes. If you have fewer, it's 90 minutes. If you have more, we take it over 120 minutes, which is more than two hours. So, separately, we dedicate more than two hours just for the purpose of clearing your doubts. So, similarly, just like you are seeing big units there, these two units are also quite significant and big within physical anthropology. What are you studying here? You are studying the concept of human growth and development. What is growth? You study that first. Along with that, you study the difference between growth and senescence. What is aging? You are studying that. So, many things are covered here. For example, as given here, senescence. At that time, your age is also increasing. Right? If you are 500 days old, the next day you will be 501 days old. So, the time when you see a reduction in biological capacity. So, in this way, you can differentiate aging and senescence. At any point in life, you are growing, aging is happening, but at every point, if you are 15 years old, you don't have senescence. Senescence comes after a certain time when your body is not functioning properly. Many biological activities that are happening are slowing down. Functional loss is happening there, bio-functional loss is happening there. In the capacity and abilities of the body. So, in this way, you differentiate. You study growth through stages. Here, we have summarized it with a chart, telling you what are the different stages, what is the time period. Growth period and stages. But within these, you also study things. What happens at what time? If you are studying, you can study 15 types of changes just for this. When is formation happening? At what time period? For example, you have studied the time period from implantation to 8 weeks, meaning up to 2 months, the period of gestation. You call this the embryonic stage. The embryonic stage of human life. If you count, then within growth and development, if you talk about fetuses, then from the 9th week, meaning after two months, from the 9th week of gestation until your birth. After this, the stage that comes is called the newborn stage. The one from the needle, the newborn, which you call it, you see that. From your birth up to 28 days, meaning approximately 1 month. After the newborn, the fourth stage that comes is your infancy. And that condition is called a newborn. Infant. After that, the life that follows, meaning from birth up to one year, you take that time frame. You can call that entire time frame from 28 days to 1 year. It is tagged as infancy. After infancy, you reach the toddler stage, which is from 1 to 3 years. Before the school-going age, it comes. Nowadays, many people also send toddlers to school, to play games, play activities, schools. Right? At least learn something through play. And if they are working professionals, then they want to get rid of this hassle. That they will also be playing there, other children will also be there, and they will be learning something simultaneously. So, early schooling is being seen nowadays in society. Next is the standard that you have. Various major critical. The time periods are changing in different parts. Sometimes the names of the stages also change. Right? Neonatal, such terms are seen there. Schooling age is from 6 to 12 years. Many people are also dividing this into girls and boys. In charts, you will find separate for girls and separate for boys. Adolescence is also the age of puberty for girls and boys. All these things. After adolescence, you see two more stages. Finally, there is a stage called adulthood. It is the 10th stage. It couldn't fit in the chart here, so you have it here. Meaning from 13 to 18 years of age. After that, adulthood, like you have. Then from 18 onwards, the life is taken in the timeframe of adulthood. So, often four divisions are given, where senescence is added. So, senescence, after 45 years, your body is decaying. Many biological functions are reducing their function in that way. And all these corresponding growth periods, timeframes. It is clear with this. You must have understood this entire concept of growth by stages. After growth by stages, you are talking about how different factors are influencing growth and development in a way. So, there are socio-cultural factors, biological factors are also seen, nutritional is also seen. Socio-cultural, you can say that if, for example, the status of women in a place, their conditioning, is not good, then you might see that special attention is given to boys' feeding, boys' nutrition, and not to girls. So, there you will see a deficiency in the number of girls, weakness, and perhaps many conditions of morbidity. At the nutritional level, in many places, you see that the required amount of carbohydrates or protein is absent. Suddenly, when you reach around 18 or the stage of adolescence. So, it is a sudden period of sudden accelerated growth. Suddenly your growth is accelerating there. Meaning, after 14-15 years, you see. So, in middle or late adolescence, suddenly you see someone, you saw a cousin a year or two ago, and suddenly their height has increased so much. So, you call that growth spurt. Suddenly, something has come into growth. Another term is called catch-up growth. Catch, like catching a ball. Catch-up growth. Many times, due to accidents, trauma, stress, depression, any mental, physical, biological condition, or anything of this sort, due to which your growth stops at a certain point. And what you are seeing there is that when your growth stops at that particular point, it has been covered. Due to nutritional deficiency, it was stopped. So, if nutritional sufficiency starts coming back to you. Trauma, stress, depression, all this. If all this goes away, and you become normal. Then as soon as that happens, you will see a sudden, immediate, accelerated growth. And you will call it catch-up growth. Meaning, in the period when that growth should have happened, let's say at 15, your accident or other conditions we talked about happened. And now you are 18, and your height, weight, and other things are as they were at 15. So, immediately when things become normal after these three years, then you will try to catch up with the entire growth of these three years. Right? You will immediately catch up with this gap. So, for that, you use that term and say it. So, in this way, there are multiple terms that you need to understand in this particular unit. So, what we have studied here is: what are the biochemical, nutritional factors? Cultural or socio-economic factors. And socio-economic, we talked about social. Along with that, it can also be economic. That, brother, the economic condition is not good. The economic condition is not good, so they are not able to focus on nutritional needs or other things. How your growth should happen there, it is not happening in that way. Environmental stress also happens sometimes. Genetic factors also play a role there. So, genetics is also very important, as you know. Growth and development, how tall someone is, or other things, many things directly depend on your genetics. After this, you talk about the concept of aging and senescence, which we differentiated. And there are also many theories and observations about aging. Why is it happening? Senescence, why are people getting old? So, you are also studying these theories there. And these theories are based on different natures. There are cellular theories, and many other theories you will see. Free radical theory. These theories say that there are errors in your body. There is very little scope for errors in the body. Errors in the body mean various functions are happening in your body. Metabolism is happening, you are also seeing respiration, many things are happening at the cellular level, at the interface. And the space or possibility of errors between those functions is very small. But these errors do happen naturally and at a very small level, at a very subtle level. So, they do not manifest so quickly. They have some application, and then at a certain point in time, they manifest themselves. Manifest means they come to the forefront. They accumulate, and then they start showing their effect, or there are aging genes. After reaching a certain time, these genes are triggered, and the process of senescence starts in you, the process of aging starts. So, who says what? For example, you get to see the experience of BS, and you get to see their work on this. They are professors at BHU. So, you study their concepts, and many other theories whose different works you are studying here. But why are people getting old? You are thinking that we are planning to make a YouTube series on this, where we make general videos. Because it was a time in India when we made a video about a strike. You must have heard about it. That was a time when India had to do surgical strikes on its own territory. This was a context. You will find all those videos there. So, we are planning to make a video on aging, on many research, many theories, around 25 minutes long, where you will see all these factors. Is a person aging? Can aging be stopped? Can old age be stopped? We are thinking of making a video on such things. Generally, whenever we get time, because you know, we are currently dealing with multiple layers and very different dimensions are going on in our dynamics. Our batches are also running. Batches are running, so it's not like we only have to take lectures. You have to regulate and oversee many things there. For example, summaries are very lucid for reading, for revision. So, that has to be covered so that your attention doesn't wander. You can study with complete devotion. And it doesn't become a burden that the sir said something, the sir said something important, let me write it down, and in the process of writing, you couldn't grasp the concept. And then you think, okay, if I couldn't grasp it, then I'll just leave it completely. I'll write everything down and watch it later in the recorded video. You are also getting recorded videos. You are getting the feature. So, you must be thinking of watching it in the recording. And while talking, because you have a fear in your mind that the recording is there, right? It won't end tomorrow, next week, next month, or in two months. It's with us for later. So, thinking this, you keep postponing it. And of course, if, for example, our classes run for 5 months, if you watch every video, it will be 10 times 5 months. You don't have that much time. So, to save you that effort, we hire an expert who is very proficient in this domain. And his expert team is working with him. He will be making notes for you. And we personally oversee and review it. Before the lecture is uploaded, we will look at it. So, that also needs to be reviewed. Lecture notes and all the study material you are getting, we also have to look at that. The PPTs that are used in class are also provided to you. So, our entire effort is on all these things, how everything reaches you in a regulated form. At times, what happens is, sometimes a video or something is dealt with for an hour. Now, somebody comes and says, sir, although I am not uploading or sending those contents, I am not even in that, I am not using.

In that particular one, I am not enrolled. You are studying, you are teaching, but sometimes students come who feel that okay, whatever is reachable in the point of reach, we first call it. That time perhaps receiving messages and I see that their queries can be sorted out there, so that the answer is immediate as much as needed. That is why the speed of the video is a little slow in our playlist. I think earlier you were getting a video every day or every other day. Now we have put it on hold. We have to resume the number series also. I was thinking that once this particular thing of ours is done, then we will resume the number series and finish it completely. Many people comment that let's do the marathon, then some people say let's do the number series, then the marathon. When will everything be finished? Anyway, this is your last one, sir, yours is done. Apart from that, archaeological, social theories, tribal, Indian, everything is finished. This is the last part, which is physical anthropology. This and social anthropology were almost the biggest parts. So both of these are going to be seen in a time frame of more than 2 hours. Right? All others are 90 minutes, 2 hours. But all these will be around 2 hours 30 minutes or 3 hours in this way. All the dealing, for some reason, because it takes more time to explain it here, especially in physical anthropology. If we start explaining one thing, that's why we are using simple charts here to explain to you. Here you are seeing that once you have read the theories, how they are being used, then the last part to be seen here is about somatotypes. Before somatotypes, there is also a point on growth studies, about how different types of growth studies are. You read about growth, how humans are growing, developing, what changes are happening. So it is divided into two or three fronts. One is longitudinal studies, and another is mixed studies. Right? So in longitudinal studies, one subject is studied for a very long time. For a long time means they will be studied throughout their growing years. Okay? In the second study, you will see that different individuals are studied at different stages. So what happens is, in the first case, in longitudinal studies, if someone is sick, someone is transferred, someone has to go somewhere, someone dies due to illness, then how will you get a replacement subject? To overcome this deficiency, you see other types of research. Right? And there you see that you use different types of individuals, different sets. So if one leaves, you can replace them with another individual. So you see multiple types of growth studies. Right? Finally, the last part it is talking about is the concept of somatotype or somatotyping. What does somatotyping talk about? Again, based on body forms and morphology, how human populations differ. And different anthropologists in different time frames have given their views. The human body, som means body, has been divided into different types, classified, categorized. You have to study those types. There is Sheldon's classification, Carter's classification, Kretchmer's classification. In this way, you study multiple classifications. Classification. So you are studying them in a sequential manner, and within that, what is the deficiency in one, due to which another came later, and why are you demanding the second one now? What was the deficiency in the first one? You see all those things there. So finally, the most accepted set of classifications you see, in which you must have heard, based on endomorph, mesomorph, you describe body types. On one side are the thinnest people, you see linearity, they are very lean. On the other side, you see people who are very heavy, bulky, broad. And the third is in between these two, which you call mesomorph. Right? So you are studying different factors within it, and also the use of somatotype, its practicability, its applicability, you are also dealing with that there. So it is very helpful for us sometimes to excel in different body types in sports. We have made a video on cricket. I think you will find our initial videos in the playlist, titled "How India Can Make Greats". So that is your sports center, as you call it, working based on its knowledge and telling who should play which game. It also comes in very handy there, that a particular set of people, among them, you see a certain type of nature or behavior, and in this, you also see a certain type of problem, issue, or disorder. So you are also dealing with all these things there. You have seen that ectomorphs are extremely lean people. There are some points, we will put the PPT. Our Telegram group, you must have seen, "Anthropology Decoding", we will put this video there. And if I forget, then remind me on our Instagram page, that is "The Sapiens Vault". Right? The one related to Homo sapiens. You tell them there, because the lower portion that you might be seeing here. So you are seeing the body type of ectomorph, how thin, lean person it is, and on the other side, you are seeing mesomorph. This is medium, not too bulky, not too lean. And on the third side, you see endomorph. So these multiple body types that exist, their existence in our society is seen here. Next, you come to what is your, I think this is done, right? Yes, this unit is done. 10th, 11.1. Its relevance is asked here. Why do you study it here? And when you study it, why do you study it? You deal with that. So, as you see menarche in girls, and other things in girls or females, what are its repercussions or implications? Why do you study it in anthropology? In this particular unit, you are explaining that. First of all, menarche, if your menstrual cycle starts early, the first menstrual flow, your flow starts, then you call it menarche. And when it ends, when it happens. There are variations in different populations, different regions, different countries. You see variations, meaning at 11-12 years, 13 years. 13 years is considered standard. Somewhere you see 12-13 years. Somewhere late menarche is seen around 13 years. Menarche is starting, and menopause is ending. Meaning its selection is happening, it is ending. So what does it mean? What is its significance? So you study through multiple case studies. First significance is that if a woman starts menarche at 13 years and menopause occurs at 50 years. Then until this, what do you see from this? That the fertility window will be seen as less. Compared to person two, meaning her childbearing years, her productivity will be seen as less. Her reproductive capacity will be seen as less. In the case of person two, because her fertility window is seen as less. Compared to person one. Here you see that there is a window of about, I think 37 years. All right. And here, on the other side, you see a window of around 30 years. Meaning there is a difference of about 6 years. So in this way, when the fertility window is less, the childbearing years will also be less. Childbearing years will be less, meaning she can remain fertile for a longer duration, can produce more children. This is a bad thing. We are studying what is the relevance of the process. Another thing to study is that as we said, based on race, ethnic diversity, region, meaning where a person is, and based on individual population, this thing, menopause or age of menarche, age of menarche to menopause can differ. In many researches conducted, it is seen that in industrial societies, in complex urban societies, where nutritional sufficiency is seen, per capita income is good, people are more prosperous in a way, there you see the phenomenon of early menarche. Meaning the menstrual cycle flow starts at an early age, or underdevelopment. So what does this indicate? That there is also a nutritional basis, because here you see nutritional sufficiency. So early menarche is possible there. In many countries that are not economically or financially sound, you see this issue there. So in this particular unit, you study many such things. Based on mortality, secondary fertility, many concepts, relating all these things with bio-events. Demographic theories. Demography, demo means people, meaning population. Graphy means study. So in demography theory, you study population, its distribution, and what it means. So population growth, population, biological, cultural. Within this also, there are sub-theories. You see theories of food, economic theories. So a very prominent one, which you start with, is Malthusian theory. Malthus's work is very important. Because Malthus's work was inspired, or his points were taken by Charles Darwin in his work on evolution. What does the theory say? That population, food, food means what? They are talking about resources. That food or food resources are increasing arithmetically. They are increasing arithmetically, meaning 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, in this proportion, in this fashion, you see them increasing. And population, you see it as 1, 2, 4, 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, in this way, 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, doubling. So population growth is very fast, geometric, whereas the growth of food and resources is arithmetic. That there is scarcity of food or resources because the population has increased so much. So it states that population cannot grow and shows it as a trap. Meaning here, food is needed, so much food is needed, but only this much food can be produced because there is a limitation. Resources are not growing in this way. Gandhi's needs, his needs have increased a lot, and production is not happening accordingly. So there are many such theories that you see here. You are studying here. Economic theories, of many people, you also read their points there. Your unit 11.3 is on bio and socio-ecological factors influencing secondary fertility. Different concepts. If you are in a disease condition, in an unhealthy condition, then it talks about all those things. Fertility. We usually understand fertility as the capacity for childbearing. But the actual term used for it is fecundity. Fecundity actually talks about this. So you are studying all these things, like menarche, you studied them. You are studying these things in 11.3 because what are the different factors, socio-ecological factors that impact fertility. So here also you study social factors, economic factors, nutritional factors, and many other types of case studies. You also study them within 11.3. Unit 12 is your entire application. You have studied it, how you see it practically. So you are showing its relevance, its applicability. And on what front is it divided? If you talk about application, it can be in multiple places. You see in sports, there is anthropology of sports, which you call anthropometry. There, in various designs, helmets, sports gears are designed in such a way that they are suitable for all the sportsmen, by taking an average. Otherwise, what is designed for Sachin might be for Vivian Richards. 15 or more or less gears are designed in a standard way. To play a particular sport, nutrition is important. You know that due to nutritional deficiency, its entire background, that entire thing is being talked about, understood. Anthropology of designing. And defense designing. In defense also, as we just talked about, like the cockpit. Different types of people will sit there. People from different places will sit. The aircraft will remain the same. Those who will fly it might change, they will be replaced, but it will not change. So a standard is measured. If any gear is to be used, car designing, even your chair table. Here it talks about defense, so how defense equipment is designed, anthropology also has an import, a role. The entire design of the cockpit, what will be the size, proportion of the cockpit, so that it is suitable for everyone who sits inside. The controls, the control gears, so that they are within everyone's reach, equally. So it is made in that way. So we know about variations, that is why we keep a lot of importance in designing in this way. You will say that anthropologists have different specializations. Someone is an expert in society, culture. Someone will be an expert in archaeology, someone in language, someone will be an expert. Someone will have more understanding of medicine. So everyone has a different niche. And in the design of other equipment also, how anthropology is basically used in the concept of design. Their mastery in design is employed there. After forensics. Then comes the topic of forensic anthropology. We also had a complete video on this, our third and fourth video, I think. In the initial videos, "Anthropology Decoding", which will be in our playlist. After that, the major video was on forensic anthropology. One more special thing about this video was that it was the only video that was hacked. You know, the platform of StudyIQ, StudyIQ's YouTube channel. It was the only video in our playlist that was missing and was missing for a long time. And we tried a lot to retrieve it. And finally, it is present in the playlist. You can watch it, you can find it. What does forensic anthropology basically do? It integrates the knowledge of anthropology with the knowledge of forensics. And it understands the entire concept of personal identification and criminal identification. Humans differ at different levels. We can see differences based on shape, size, proportion. You can see based on dentition, your teeth, their patterns. And there are many other factors that we have dealt with in that video. You can watch and understand. If you talk about sex, meaning male and female, what are the changes? If something is found last and has deteriorated, is old, then how will you know what its sex is? You will get a complete explanation there. In forensics, it helps. Multiple things, like the chin, and the size and proportion of the forehead. Your supraorbital ridges. All these things. And especially, apart from cranial features, the most important feature is your pubic bone. Your pubic bone is very helpful. If you find pubic bones, the bones of the pelvis, then it is very helpful for personal identification. It also helps a lot in identifying criminals. Right? In this way, forensic knowledge is also utilized, also added to the knowledge. Later, after this, you talk about forensics. Our forensics is done. Methods and principles of personal identification, reconstruction. This also comes under forensic anthropology. Applied human genetics. You also see the application of human genetics. There, three different zones come. Euthenics, eugenics. You talk about all these things. Meaning, here, an attempt is made to improve the human population. How will you bring improvement in the human population? Meaning, you have found out at the genetic level what is harmful. That this particular thing is not good for the human population. It is a little gene, or its manifestation will not be good. So you will try to prevent such people from marrying, where such disorders or such conditions can arise. Meaning, you discourage their marriages. Right? How can someone discourage marriage? You see, same-sex marriages, how they are facing difficulty in getting legal status or recognition. And marriages, your thing, or child adoption. All these concepts of yours. Although it seems to focus a lot on the individual human, even under democracy, the government tries to control these things, tries to regulate them. Right? So here you have talked.

It is possible that there, from the meeting, genetic counseling was rock-solid. Counseling is genetic counseling. Many times, people are themselves told that if you marry, it is possible that your children might also have this kind of problem. If you carry on further, it is possible that influenced by counseling, satisfied, parents might not step into it, right? There are other things too, like a practice where you are working at a behavioral level. That is, you try to groom very intelligent children together. You try to groom them selectively there because intelligence also has a genetic factor, and you also see an environmental factor. There is also a genetic factor. So, if you can genetically identify that yes, their IQ, intelligence level is high, then such people are kept together. For that, you see many internships. So, NEET, JEE, which are engineering examinations, you go to IIT, then IIT provides a system where all brilliant people are sitting there with you. The concept of Navodaya schools is also using the concept of this phenomenon. Okay. Leaving this aside, you see, you can also select people out at a physical level. Population, which you use here, to remove any deleterious genes, or to prevent their preference, or to encourage mating and marriage between superior people who have superior genes. Anthropology is also used a lot there. Okay. After genetics, you also talk about paternity diagnosis. Many times, paternity disputes happen, so there you are using things like DNA fingerprinting. Based on DNA, you are trying to find out how, like Narayan Dutt Tiwari, who was the Chief Minister of Uttarakhand, I think he was also a BJP minister in UP, you talk about him. So, in his case, you saw this. So, in such cases, if someone claims, for example, if that thing has to proceed, if there is some substance in their claim, then paternity, a deep ocean of knowledge, is helping there. At the time of addressing a practical problem, a practical issue. After this, you talk about genetic counseling. See, you have your own, which we just talked about, the betterment of the human race. That comes under eugenics, right? How is that betterment done? We just explained that those who have good genes, promote them, encourage marriage and mating between them. Those who don't have good genes, counsel them. In counseling, all these things are told. Just like you have UPSC counseling, you sit, and you are told different things about how to study, how to prepare, time partitioning, which optional to take, which not to take. I hope that most of the counselors are sound enough to recommend that you should take Psychology, because it is not a great subject. If you open the UPSC list, that's why we have repeatedly said that from 2013 to 2019, it has maintained a success rate of 10.5%. Now, the other five major optionals, which are taken the most, the six major optionals, I am telling you based on ranking. You can place any of the six in the first, second, third, or fourth position. So, if you look at them, out of the six, only Psychology has maintained a success rate of 10.5% over so many years. If you calculate the average of other subjects, that is 7.7%. It has given two All India Rank 1s in four to five years. Do you understand? It has given All India Rank 1 twice in four to five years. Then in 2017, a student, in a single year, we gave four ranks in the top ten. If you look at the 2017 result, you will find four people in the top ten ranks. That is, in five years, we have given more than one person in the top ten here, and all the ranks are 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10. All the ranks are with us. So, any counselor, of course, if they are sound enough, if they genuinely want your well-being, if they are not being manipulated, controlled, or influenced in that way, they will always suggest that you should take it. It is short, static, finishes in four to four and a half months, and many subjects take a very long time, drag on. And it is static, meaning you won't have to apply much additional effort per paper, inserting different papers, reading newspapers daily, and so on. It is very static. 85% of it is static, 15% is dynamic, and even that 15% is not asked directly from you regularly. It won't ask you directly; you will have to reduce it to examples yourself. So, you see all these benefits that you get to know during counseling. Similarly, genetic aspect counseling is also going on. What should you marry? What are your genetic principles? What health disorders do you have? Is there any latent condition that might surface later? If you marry, and if two people marry each other, and if they have children, can any disorder arise between them? So, in a genetic way, by telling all those things, diagnosing them, counseling them, they are giving results. But the ultimate decision is still with the parents. If it is a democratic region, a democratic setup, then it's fine. After that, you have DNA technology. How are you using it in medicine? The principle of genetics, so it is the study of cells. You are studying within chromosomes, so you can understand different chromosomes. The multiple disorders you study, Klinefelter syndrome, Patau syndrome, Edward syndrome, you are seeing. Cri du chat syndrome, you are seeing. Down syndrome, you are seeing. So, you also see many chromosomal abnormalities, which can be autosomal or sex-linked. So, what are the underlying principles under that? You also study all these things here. Basically, in Unit C, all those things where anthropology knowledge can be utilized to achieve a practical goal, all those things are discussed in Unit 12. Unit 1.4. We are starting this behind. It is at the beginning of Paper One, but its nature is such that we have kept it in Paper Two. For example, in 1.4, you have the unit on Human Evolution. So, what do you study in Human Evolution? Study the same things that you have studied many times since childhood. Study the emergence of man. So, in 10th grade, you also have that chart. How humans, from Ramapithecus to Australopithecus, to Homo habilis, Homo erectus, Homo neanderthalensis, finally Homo sapiens, you are seeing them emerge. So, how did humans emerge? The many changes we just told you in a story format, Lamarck's hypothesis, arboreal hypothesis, all those things you are dealing with in these particular units. In 1.5, how has human progression, evolution happened? What changes do you see? You are studying the theories of evolution. If you study the theories of evolution, then they are divided into two phases. Pre-Carboniferous is considered a landmark. Theories before them, and theories after them. For example, you are seeing the theory of Uniformitarianism, which many people study in geology. You call it uniformitarianism, or uniformitarianism. You are talking about the acquisition of inherited traits. And you are talking about the use and disuse of organs. The organs which you are using more will develop more, you will see growth in them. And the thing, the organ, the feature which you stop using, its growth will also be seen to decline. Gradually, if you don't use it for so long, it will disappear. Later, you know that experiments by Weismann and others have proven this wrong. The theory came. It uses the principles of Darwin. Many things of Lamarck are also used there. And it has used multiple scholars. And the theory of survival of the fittest, you have all heard of it. It was published in 1859. Their gap, their work, and their work not. The difference between them. And the system of influence and a class. How do you see it? They came from very good backgrounds. And you see Darwin, at the same time, doing the same thing. Both people are talking about the same principle, but the paper that is presented to the public, Darwin's is the first. Both papers reached at the same time, and in many places, it is said that Wallace's paper reached first, yet Darwin is given a superior advantage, superiority, priority. Why is that? So, regarding that, you see conspiracy theories in the Western world. In India, you extract the description, finish it. We don't do things, we don't try to go too much left or right on things. You have to crack the exam. So, Darwin, what is he to you? He is not your uncle that you need to know about his character. So, you know Darwin's entire work. It is the theory of survival. He will remain. The rest, those who are better adapted, whose features are best adapted. So, in this theory, you will see many problems. In Lamarck's theory, so those who come after him bring synthetic theories, which combine multiple scholars and multiple theories. Then Mendel's work also comes here. At that time, it was not recognized. Correns and others rediscovered it in a way, and then a new phase begins. If you talk about the display of science, then you see the father of evolutionary biology concepts. You are also studying many ecological rules, like Rule of Gause, parallelism, convergence, you have studied them. For example, we have also made an ecological video. It is available in your playlist. You can also watch that. Gause's rule, what does it say? Or Cope's rule tells you that in the entire series of evolution, the entire trend of evolution that you have seen, the height of humans has been increasing. Individuals or populations, or what you see in the fossil record, it tends to increase in the course of evolution. That is, earlier people were shorter. Earlier, you see shorter heights. In the course of evolution, height is increasing, until some restricting force comes and starts working. So, this is what Cope's rule says. Dollo's rule, what is Dollo's rule? Dollo's rule is about irreversibility. The process is irreversible. That is, if you were quadrupedal, walking on four legs, and you became bipedal locomotion, or evolved through it, and reached the present stage, all that is irreparable. You cannot invoke it back. Paracetamol, you must have seen its coverage a few months ago. Gause's rule comes. What is Gause's rule? It is the rule of majority clauses. What happens in it? Gause's rule talks about competitive exclusion. What does it mean? If two particular species are present in a region, and their resource is the same, then they cannot co-exist. That is, if they depend on the same resource, they cannot be present in the same region. Both cannot survive. One that is slightly dominant will replace the other, either drive it away, or kill it by becoming a predator and eliminate it. So, based on two particular resources, they cannot live in a particular region. Two swords cannot remain in one sheath. So, that is the concept it is telling you. Gause's rule, in this, and the principle of adaptive radiation, you read many examples, and the concept of convergence, we also attach it and explain it to you when things are happening in live lectures. You are seeing these different progressions, what changes you are seeing in the evolutionary trend. This Australopithecus is seen protruding outwards towards the front, towards the face. Many words will be explained to you when you come to live lectures. Each diagram, each model, through 3D presentations, all these things are explained to you. You have seen that it went, like Homo habilis started. The tension of Homo habilis, people are now pushing it back to 3 million years ago. Homo erectus, around 2 million years ago. According to the latest research done a year ago, it is 2 million years ago. It has been pushed back. And you know that Homo erectus, the population of Homo habilis is also seen. What you call man, and the standard time frame was 2.6 million years ago, 26 lakh years ago, but now the latest research has pushed it even before 3 million years ago. So, in that, you see how this feature, based on the anatomy you see, based on the orbits. This position, this portion, is called the supraorbital ridge. Your orbits are here, supra means above, and ridge means, understand, this kind of structure you are seeing. This feature is called the supraorbital ridge. When you come to humans, through your ancestors, you will see it reducing. The supraorbital ridge will disappear. See the ideal skull. Here is Homo habilis. These people understand this, this is a different gene, a different species. Ours is this. But Homo is not written everywhere. Like when we speak, people get confused. You also have to look at our genes. I will send the PPT below. Where is the record? I will send it to you. You are getting Homo neanderthalensis, which is also related to Homo habilis, and finally, you are here, that is, you yourself have arrived. In this way, you are seeing gradual progression. You study things within primatology and human evolution. Here you come across a term called biocultural evolution. The biocultural aspect of human evolution. As I told you when the ecological unit was being discussed, I told you how the savanna conditions prevailed, so you became terrestrial from arboreal, you came on two legs. Your hands became free. When your hands became free, you could fashion tools. You interacted with the environment, picked up stones, and fashioned them like tools, like weapons. And you made cleavers, scrapers, different types of scrapers, concave, convex, side scrapers, you kept making multiple types of tools. You made microblades, which you see in later phases. You made blades, gravers, burins. So many things you are remembering, just because your hands became free. How you discovered fire. For shelter, you started manipulating the environment, making proper housing. I live in a circle, am I being eaten by a wild animal? I am not saying that. I am saying that you, humans, are being discussed. So, you saw such changes, biocultural, together. For example, our ability for language, you will read about it when the unit on linguistic anthropology comes. Our erect posture helped us a lot. Looking at our voice box position, joints, all these things, how did it help in giving birth to our ability for language? Next, if you talk about our ability to make tools, which I discussed earlier, that also came about due to these biological changes. Bipedalism, standing on two feet. All these things are interconnected. That is, biology and culture are not separate components. And that is why anthropology is called a holistic study, because it integrates the study of every field to study human phenomena. With a 360-degree approach, meaning we will not leave anything. We will study socially, psychologically, biologically, financially, economically, what is your condition, how do you do business, how do you do tourism, what are your medical values, you are studying in medical anthropology. Related to media, what do you do on Facebook, on Instagram? Digital anthropology or digital ethnography, you are also studying. So, nowadays, research is also going on Facebook, on Instagram, on Snapchat. Be ready. So, this is the whole concept. We just talked about Darwin, that whoever adapts correctly will survive. In this entire battle of UPSC, whoever sticks to the right path, with the right concentration, right efforts, the 8-fold path, right mindfulness in Buddhism, right understanding, similarly, your mindfulness, efforts are right. Keeping all these efforts within the 8-fold path. So, if all those things align correctly, then in terms of the UPSC journey, and now the UPSC journey, you will cross it and reach the other side of the great lake. So, adaptation, how primates adapt, what adaptations you see between them, you are studying in this particular unit. What were the arboreal adaptations, and what are the terrestrial adaptations? You are seeing different muscles, in the region of your limbs.

This is called Mediclaim, and the other you call, sorry, my drawing in the finger is not good, so please don't blame me for that, sir. They call it some ghost, etc., medicine. So, these provide you with a kind of support from both sides. If it were here, then you would start falling backward. If it were here, then you would start falling forward. So, this is providing you with a balance from both sides. Different types of muscles are present in your body, okay. Glutes, the muscles of the glutes, you must have studied about gluteus maximus, gluteus medius. The longest bones in your body are helping you maintain your bipedal locomotion in this way. In this way, what might have been the early primate adaptations? We just talked about free hand side tails, meaning branches. So, their tails were formed in a way that helped them in gripping, rolling out, and hanging. So, by using their tails there, the monkeys, whoever they are, could hang. You will see their fingers are quite large. They are made in such a way that they can use them like long hands. So, in this way, all these changes are functioning. Here, we have understood terrestrial adaptations, what are terrestrial adaptations. You have understood arboreal adaptations here. Leaving that, you study taxonomy. For taxonomy, I think this is left here. Its diagram is not here. In taxonomy, if you study, you must have studied the 2-kingdom classification in childhood, okay. You must have studied 3 kingdoms, 5 kingdoms. Robert Whittaker, in plantae and in fungi, how he divided them. And in that, you see, it is divided into different classes. But here, we are not studying at the level of classes, not even at the level of subclasses. We are studying classification, taxonomy, at the level of orders. And how different groups have what characteristics. We are also looking at how humans and other primates are divided. If you divide them, you get Prosimii and Anthropoidea. Further dividing them, you get Lorisiformes, Tarsiiformes, and Anthropoidea. Within Anthropoidea, you further get Platyrrhini and Catarrhini. You see these different groups, which finally include humans and apes. Lesser apes, which are gibbons, and greater apes, which are gorillas, chimpanzees, and orangutans. You see these. And along with those apes, apes are called tailless monkeys. Then, in a way, it studies humans. So, first, you studied the classification at the primate level, how we are different from primates, how we are similar. And then, how we are similar to humans. Sorry, how are we similar to humans and apes? I am not an alien, I am sorry. So, you see the similarities and differences between humans and other apes. What I have put on the projector and explained, and the center point I told you, is considered a bit old and outdated. The latest classification or taxonomy is based on the structure of the nose and other things. It tells us about the moist part present in front of the nose in some animals and not in others, which is called rhinarium. Classification is being done based on that. Nowadays, there is a trend, and in that trend, instead of Prosimii and Anthropoidea, you are seeing classification based on Strepsirrhini. So, in this way, the concept of platyrrhine structure is being seen there. For example, here are some characteristics of primates. Opposability is seen in primates, meaning the thumb can move. You are seeing it move from both sides. This is because some muscles here allow movement. We talk about the muscle called opponens, which is very helpful for opposability. When you study the muscles of the thumb or the palm region, you will find that these muscles help in opposability and other things. So, there is manual dexterity. Dexterity, which you call 'dakshata' in Hindi, means you can do anything with your fingers in different ways. You can manipulate them. So, there is dexterity, skill. You have precision. It's not that you just grab something. You have precision control over something. So, you can do these kinds of things as well. Although this is not present in all primates, the ability to manipulate hands is mostly seen within the primate group. It is most seen in apes and finally in humans. And in humans, dexterity reaches its peak. It's not like it's present in everyone. In some, you will see opposability in the hand region, meaning in the forelimbs. In some, you will see it in the hindlimbs. In some, you will see it in both. In humans, opposability is not seen in the hindlimbs. Prehensile or grasping hands and feet are seen. Forward-facing eyes, which you are seeing, due to which stereoscopic vision is present in you, which provides you with depth perception. Visual, visual, here we are talking about the visual capacity. It is increasing. If you talk about other groups, as you move towards primates and look at other groups before them, you will see that the nose or the sense of smell is very strong. In us, that sense of smell or the strength of the sense of smell is decreasing. Over the development of the visual apparatus, our visual capability has increased, and the sense of smell has reduced. This is called olfaction. So, you see a reduction in olfaction and development in visual acuity in primates. As you move from lower to higher, the cerebrum, the portion of the brain you are seeing, the convolutions you are seeing, which are increasing mobility. The presence of a prehensile tail in humans and many other apes is seen. You see a vestigial tail, the coccyx portion. Rotating forearms, you can rotate your forearms. I will demonstrate by rotating them. You can go to your IPL or play bowling. Color vision is seen. The gestation period also increases, which you are seeing. And post-care, when you come to humans, there is a lot of care, sophistication, because the brain has developed a lot. And if you look at lower primates, compared to other groups outside primates, you see more advancement here. So, these are the characters. Then, in a comparative way, just as we studied male and female in forensics, here we are telling you about Australopithecus and humans. In this way, you have to study comparative anatomy based on that. So, it is comparative; it is not in others. Humans are bipedal, so what changes have occurred in them? You differentiate based on the orbital region, how we are different from other primates. You differentiate based on the forehead, whether it is receding or what kind of forehead you see. You talk about the superciliary ridge, the zygomatic processes. There are many such features based on which you talk about their phenotype, their shape. In humans, you see a parabolic shape. If you go to apes, you will see a U-shaped shape. If you go to lower primates and other groups, you will see a V-shaped dental pattern. So, there are multiple anatomical features based on which we are also doing comparative studies. Then, a question arises: primate behavior. We also study behavior. Primates, meaning all the members that we have discussed in classification and also told you the story. You see, if you are going down a street, you are going down a strange street. Before the street, you see that on the hill in your street, the dogs urinate on something. So, what is the principle behind it? That urine has a smell, an odor. And we just said that in lower primates and other members of this group, you see a very strong sense of olfaction, meaning the ability to smell. They smell very quickly from a distance. So, when they urinate, they leave a marking feature, like GPS tracking. They leave a marking feature that other dogs from other streets or other places will smell and understand that this is from another place. So, when you go into another street, suddenly you see that many times dogs, even if you haven't done anything, you are simply passing by, and they start running, barking, and talking to you. Why does this happen? Because they have detected an alien smell, an alien odor, a foreign odor, and then they are telling you that you are a stranger, you are not allowed here. So, the concept of territory is also present in them. They also have the concept of place, that this is my place, this is your place. Based on that place, resource partitioning happens. I told you that in the sense of humans, in the sense of human society, and also in their own, when you see apes, they mark their territory, who will live in it. Leaving territoriality, aggression is a phenomenon, anger, which you call it. So, the phenomenon of aggression is also commonly seen. For example, in chimpanzees, you will see a lot of it. When you go to watch a movie, go to a bandstand, go to Bandra, you might see Shah Rukh Khan in front of the bandstand, or if you go towards Galaxy, you might see Salman Khan, Jalsa, or Amitabh Ji. Sorry, Jalsa is Rajesh Khanna's mistake. So, in that way, when you go, they make peculiar sounds, sounds through which they reach out. So, you see different behavior patterns in this particular part. Then, the territory and quaternary period, within which a series of geological eras are formed, is also in your playlist. The geological time scale covers the entire existence of the Earth, its time period, in different stages, from the earliest formation of the Earth to the present time. So, it is divided into periods and epochs. There are different classes. The Holocene, which started about 11,000 years ago, people say, research suggests. Before that, you see, when ice ages were coming, that particular period is called the Pleistocene. During that period, there was extensive rainfall and snowfall, leading to ice formation. So, study the period of the Pleistocene, study the period of the Pliocene, Oligocene, Miocene, and Eocene. In the periods of all these, different fossils, especially after the Oligocene, you start seeing multiple fossil records. Oligocene, Miocene, Pliocene, then Pleistocene, and Holocene. This entire set, in which multiple fossil records pertaining to human antiquity, related to our ancestors, are seen. So, you have to study their features. Along with the features of different primates, you have to study their features. Behind that, you see, you will find the features of Homo habilis, Homo erectus, and Australopithecus. Then you study what changes occurred in the skeletal structure, what supported it, and what resulted. Physical anthropology, I think, is from mist. This was supposed to finish in 3 hours, and we are finishing it in less than 180 minutes. So, I hope you thoroughly enjoyed this entire marathon, and you can use this marathon with our handwritten notes for your last-minute preparation. Many things will be useful for them as well. And the most important thing, its success story. And if we had talked about the right counsel, they would have told you why you shouldn't even consider any option other than anthropology. Because no other optional subject stands anywhere near anthropology. So, why is that? They would have told you the concerns. Then a person would think, "I have heard from all the toppers that they are giving anthropology." We also understood that, but what is there in anthropology? Because before graduation, it doesn't exist, so you don't know what it is. So, for them, this is the best. The time period of 14 hours, meaning if you give 4-5 hours per day, you can finish this in 3 days. You will understand what is studied in anthropology, and then you will genuinely become interested. Someone will be interested in physical, someone in ecological, someone in cultural, someone in tribal, Indian. There is something for everyone here. Just like India's diversity, anthropology itself is so diverse. Everyone will enjoy it. And I hope you utilize it well. We will try to launch the completion of our marathon, what we covered in 14 hours, and add all the videos to the playlist. You can follow our playlist on the YouTube Study IQ platform to get regular updates on upcoming videos that will be released. We are resuming. So, we will see you again in some other video, some other lecture. Then, thank you, goodbye, have a nice day. Signing off. Now preparation is affordable.