CENGİZ HAN - Kölelikten İmparatorluğa Temuçin'in Hayatı ve Savaşları

Genghis Khan, whose real name was Temujin, was the founder of the largest land empire in history and the ruler of the Mongols. For some, he was a hero; for others, he was the greatest disaster of his era. But he managed to escape slavery and become a leader who etched his name in history with golden letters. When Temujin united all the Mongol tribes under a single banner in 1206, he was no longer just a leader but a legend. It was at that kurultay that he gave himself a new name: Genghis Khan. The meaning of this title has been debated for centuries. According to some historians, the word "Genghis" means strong, firm, unshakeable. Thus, Genghis Khan means strong ruler. According to another view, this word comes from the Turkish word "Tengri." Accordingly, Genghis Khan carries meanings such as ruler of the seas, or master of the boundless world. However, for some, this title had no special meaning. Temujin wanted to create a completely different identity for himself by rejecting the traditional title of "Gurkhan," meaning universal ruler, of the time. This reflected his character. He was a leader who did not fit into molds, who redefined everything. His real name, Temujin, was reportedly taken from the name of a Tatar chieftain his father defeated in a battle. In other words, Genghis Khan was given the name of his father's defeated enemy. Temujin and Genghis already carry similar meanings. His real name also meant rigid, firm, like iron. And this child grew up amidst the winds of the steppe, escaped from captivity, brought tribes together, and became the man who changed the destiny of the world. He grew up as Temujin, and went down in history as Genghis Khan. He was the symbol of that boundless power and might. While the debate continues whether Genghis Khan was a hero or a tyrant, after listening to his legendary story, you will answer this question yourself. How did the Mongol ruler Genghis Khan, who etched his name in history with golden letters, actually look? Unfortunately, there are no paintings or sculptures from his time. This is because Genghis Khan never allowed his likeness to be made. Perhaps he wanted people to remember his name, not his face. Nevertheless, some sources offer us clues about his appearance. The Secret History of the Mongols and Chinese chronicles depict him as a typical steppe warrior. Broad cheekbones, slanted eyes, a flat nose, and a strong jawline. His face bore the harshness of the Central Asian winds. But some Arab and Persian historians paint a different portrait. According to them, Genghis Khan had a fair complexion, bright eyes, and even reddish hair. This detail might be surprising, but fair-colored hair and eye tones were occasionally seen among the Mongol tribes of that period. It is reported that he usually kept his hair long, braiding it and tying it at the back of his head when going to war. He was as striking in his demeanor as in his appearance. He was tall, broad-shouldered, with a muscular and strong physique. All sources agree on his physical appearance. It is even told that he looked down on those shorter than him when selecting soldiers. This indicates that his height was quite considerable for his people. Modern estimates suggest Genghis Khan's height was between 1.75 and 1.80 meters. This was an extraordinary height for the 13th century. But all these accounts do not fully express his true face and physical appearance. This is because those who painted portraits and pictures of Genghis Khan dared to do so about 50 years after his death. For this reason, the works depicting Genghis Khan mostly reflect the imagination of legends and different cultures that portrayed him. This painting, one of the oldest known portraits of Genghis Khan, dates back to the late 13th century, during the Chinese Yuan dynasty. In the painting, Genghis Khan is depicted with a beard and a proud expression, wearing white kaftans. Due to the absence of any contemporary depictions and it being the first painting drawn, subsequent generations imagined Genghis Khan in their minds as depicted in this portrait, and it became his lasting representation. To tell the story of Genghis Khan, who changed the course of history, or his childhood name Temujin, we first need to look at his lineage, where he was born, and what kind of world he was born into. Temujin was born into the Borjigin tribe, one of the Mongol tribes, during a time when the Mongols lived in tribes. His family belonged to this warrior tribe that had lived in the Central Asian steppes for generations. Genghis Khan's father, Yesügei Baghatur, was one of the chieftains of the Borjigin. His mother, Hoelun, came from the Olkunut clan, a powerful tribe of the Merkits. Hoelun was a woman renowned for her beauty at that time. Her first husband was a brave warrior named Chiledu. Together with him, she was trying to build a new life, blending with the winds of the steppe. One day, Yesügei Baghatur, the leader of the Borjigin, noticed this young couple while returning from a hunt on horseback. His eyes fell on Hoelun, and he made a decision at that moment. He had to abduct Hoelun and make her his wife. Yesügei, with his warriors, pursued Chiledu. Chiledu tried to protect his wife but could not resist his numerically superior enemies. Yesügei forcibly took Hoelun and brought her to his homeland. Hoelun would now be Yesügei Baghatur's wife and the mother of the future great conqueror Temujin. This event would determine not only the fate of two people but also the future of the Mongol tribes. Temujin, who would later be known to the whole world as Genghis Khan, the great steppe leader, was most likely born in 1162. His birthplace was in present-day Mongolia, on the banks of the Onon River, at the foot of the Burkhan Khaldun mountains. Although there are slight differences among sources, with some mentioning 1155 or 1167, the vast majority of historians accept 1162. In those years, this region was a typical steppe land with its harsh winters, dry summers, high mountains, and endless pastures. But not only its nature but also its social structure was difficult. The Mongol world at that time consisted of fragmented tribes. Each tribe lived under its own khan, constantly clashing with each other for power, spoils, and land. The Mongols were not yet united at that time. Many different tribes, from the Oirats to the Merkits, from the Naimans to the Keraits, were frequently in conflict. To the west of this complex world were the Turkic tribes, and to the east were the Tatar tribes. Since the Turks, Tatars, and Mongols were born in the same geography, their lifestyles were similar. It was even said that they came from the same lineage. However, on the stage of history, they saw themselves as different nations. Bloody struggles often occurred between them. Meanwhile, these warrior peoples of the north were under the pressure of powerful neighbors such as the Jin dynasty ruling in northern China and the Qara Khitai to the west. These states maintained their power by pitting the tribes of the steppe against each other, ruling some as vassals. It was in such a period that Temujin was born into a ruthless world of betrayals, temporary alliances, and struggles for survival. This harsh environment shaped his character from a young age, and one day, a single empire would be born from all this chaos: the Great Mongol Empire founded by Genghis Khan. So, how did the events of Temujin's childhood affect his character, and who influenced his education? Before we move on to the answer, you can support the channel by subscribing and also help us reach more people by liking the documentary. Temujin's childhood was a period full of difficult struggles on one hand, and on the other, a harsh period where he developed survival skills. His father, Yesügei, was a tribal chief engaged in conflict with the neighboring Tatar tribe. When Temujin was only 9 years old, his father Yesügei decided to set out to find him a wife. Temujin had a strained relationship with his half-brother, Begte. For this reason, Yesügei was looking for a bride's family who could take Temujin in as a worker. This way, he could keep them apart. For this search, he probably decided to go to his mother Hoelun's tribe. Another family accompanied them on this journey. This family had a daughter a few years older than Temujin. The girl's name was Börte. During the journey, a good relationship developed between Temujin and her. Eventually, on the journey they set out for a bride search, it was decided that Temujin would marry Börte, with whom they traveled together, and stay with her family. Before this journey even ended, his father Yesügei was invited to a meal. This meal was actually organized by their enemies, the Tatars, and Yesügei Baghatur was poisoned and killed at this meal. His father's sudden death left Temujin and his family unprotected within the tribe. His father's tribe ostracized his widowed mother Hoelun and her children. They thought they would not provide any benefit to the tribe, and the family was virtually abandoned to its fate. This was the first major trauma in young Temujin's life. His mother Hoelun now had to struggle for survival with her children alone in the steppes around the Onon River. During these years, Temujin learned to hunt, endure the harsh conditions of nature, and cope with scarcity. To protect his family from starvation, he tried to survive by fishing and gathering wild fruits with his siblings. Family tensions also arose during this period. His half-brother Begter, being the eldest, acted as the head of the family and bullied Temujin and his other siblings. One day, a dispute arose when Temujin's hunted prey was forcibly taken from him. Young Temujin killed Begter and shot him with an arrow, killing his half-brother. This event went down in history as a striking memory showing that even as a child, Temujin was trying to assert his authority and would risk anything to survive. The tribe Temujin belonged to, the Borjigin, was subordinate to the Tayichi'ud tribe, which was stronger and had authority over the Borjigin. They controlled the region. After Temujin killed his half-brother, they could no longer stay there. Because they would surely demand an account for it. As expected, the Tayichi'uds soon learned what Temujin had done. A group of warriors immediately set out in pursuit. Their goal was to capture Temujin, and so it happened. He was soon found and captured. He was taken back to his homeland with a wooden cangue, a slave's yoke, around his neck. This period, during which Temujin was held captive and forced to work as a slave, was a humiliating but equally instructive experience for him. Temujin was assigned to a family in the yurt every day and told to serve that family. Thus, a different family watched over him each day. One night, when the guards were very drunk, Temujin, who was staying with a kind, poor family, managed to escape captivity at midnight with the help of that family, evading the guards. This escape revealed his intelligent, opportunistic character, and his unwillingness to ever give up his freedom. Having escaped captivity and returned to his mother, Temujin would now rise from childhood as a young leader shaping his destiny with his own hands. Undoubtedly, his mother Hoelun played the biggest role in Temujin's education and the shaping of his character. Hoelun was a brave, resilient, and wise woman. After her husband's death, she kept her children together, acting as both mother and father to them. She advised Temujin on patience, strategic thinking, and the importance of unity. In addition, there were two other important figures who influenced Temujin during his youth: Toghrul Khan, also known as Ong Khan, and Jamukha. Toghrul Khan was the khan of the Keraits and a war comrade of Temujin's father. When Temujin escaped captivity, he first went to his fiancée Börte. Later, Toghrul Khan, his father's old friend, arranged for Temujin and Börte to marry. After that, Toghrul Khan supported Temujin in his youth and guided him like a spiritual father. However, their relationship would later sour. On the other hand, his childhood friend Jamukha was Temujin's anda, his blood brother. The two swore an anda oath at a young age, pledging loyalty to each other. Jamukha was initially Temujin's closest confidant and supporter. They hunted, fought, and dreamed together. Jamukha's friendship gave Temujin his first alliance experience on the path to leadership. Although their paths later diverged and they became rivals, Jamukha influenced the young Temujin's worldview. In other words, Toghrul Khan and Jamukha, who were initially his comrades, would later become Temujin's enemies. But why? We will touch upon this shortly. Temujin was not literate, as this was not common in steppe tradition. His school was life itself. Having to fend for himself and his family from a young age, unable to stay in a tribe, and even being captured and enslaved, taught him the importance of survival and tactical development in a brutal environment. He experienced being harsh when necessary and patient when necessary to protect his family during these years. He learned about inter-tribal conflicts, alliances, and betrayals firsthand. The lessons he received at a young age formed the background for his future major decisions. Ultimately, although Temujin's childhood was not easy, these very difficulties sharpened his determination, revealed his leadership qualities at an early age, and laid the foundation for a great commander who would later embody the identity of Genghis Khan. Another event that deeply affected him was the abduction of his wife Börte and Temujin's first battle experience to rescue her. The reason for Börte's abduction was the same reason his mother Hoelun had been abducted. In other words, the Merkits, Hoelun's tribe, wanted to apply the principle of retaliation. This meant that Temujin's family would be shaken by another attack. Young Temujin immediately took action and asked for help from Toghrul Khan, whom he saw as a father. Toghrul Khan accepted his request for help. Because it also provided him with an excuse to move against the Merkits, his enemies, and plunder them. He immediately summoned his blood brother Jamukha to help and lead Temujin. The three of them attacked the Merkit tribe and rescued Börte. This was Temujin's first military victory, and it spread as a tale of heroism throughout the region. The courage he displayed in rescuing his wife increased his self-confidence and changed how people around him viewed him. After this event, Temujin and Jamukha renewed their blood brotherhood bonds. They exchanged horses and clothes as gifts. Trading their most valuable possessions meant acting like true brothers. This was a very valuable concept for the Mongols, and after this help, Temujin accepted Jamukha as a leader. He was happy to learn new things from him, but this would not last long. In summary, the fundamental events that shaped Temujin's childhood and early youth were his father's murder and his tribe's abandonment, his brief enslavement, and the rescue of his wife Börte. These experiences, filled with pain and victory, determined his future vision. The idea of uniting the fragmented Mongol tribes and establishing a strong state to protect his people largely germinated from these experiences. Temujin's ascension to the head of his own state, the Great Mongol Empire, by taking the title of Genghis Khan, was the result of a long struggle for power and a series of victories. Taking over his father's legacy with a small group, Temujin first formed a loyal core community around him. His childhood friend Jamukha and Toghrul Khan, under whose protection he fell, were initially his greatest allies. After they defeated the Merkits together and rescued Börte, Temujin's fame began to spread across the steppe. However, the path to power was not smooth. Temujin would first have to contend with his blood brother Jamukha, who now acted not like a brother but like a noble ruler. Jamukha was disturbed by Temujin's ability to gather people around him like a leader and thought he came from a nobler family. He no longer wanted Temujin to follow him around and assigned him more menial tasks. Unable to accept this situation, Temujin decided to leave the camp with his loyal supporters from the tribe. Ultimately, a struggle that would last for many years began between Temujin and Jamukha. However, although they were leaders of their own tribes, both were under Toghrul Khan's protection. Toghrul Khan had allowed this separation because he did not want a power that could grow against him, and this separation weakened them. Temujin quickly gathered loyal companions around him who accepted his leadership. While forming a new core staff, he empowered talented and loyal people, not relatives. He first appointed two loyal friends, Borchu and Jelme, to head the newly formed military unit. These names would later become legendary. Temujin's personal charisma, generosity, and fair distribution of spoils led more and more warriors to join his banner each day. In the 1190s, his relationship with his former blood brother Jamukha had significantly deteriorated. There were constant tensions between the two yurts. Finally, a battle took place between the two blood brothers, attended by several hundred people. The rivalry between the two initially resulted in Temujin's heavy defeat. Jamukha tried to intimidate all the Mongols by torturing and killing some of the people he captured. However, this defeat did not break Temujin's determination. On the contrary, he continued to review his strategies and gather strength. Jamukha's cruelty led Temujin to gather more supporters. By 1195, a different development occurred, and Temujin and Toghrul Khan decided to launch a campaign against the Tatars. Thus, Temujin would be able to settle scores with his father's murderers. They defeated the Tatars in a great battle and obtained immense spoils. The Tatars were very wealthy because they were neighbors to China and played an important role in trade. They even wore clothes adorned with gold and silver. The Mongols, on the other hand, wandered the steppe in worn-out clothes. But with the spoils obtained from this war, Temujin not only became rich but also gathered more followers to his side. When Temujin decided to launch a campaign against the Tatars, a tribe called the Jurkins also promised to support him and fight alongside him. However, when the war began, there was no sign of the Jurkins. In fact, they took advantage of the opportunity and plundered Temujin's yurt, which he had left behind during the war. Temujin's response to this betrayal was the harbinger of a brand new transformation. Instead of waging total war against the Jurkins, he captured only the leading nobles of the tribe and put them on trial. Then he executed them all. He accepted the common people as members of his own tribe. He even adopted an orphaned child to his mother, treating him as if he were his own brother. Thus, instead of making an enemy tribe, he incorporated that tribe into his influence. It also sent a message to the other Mongol tribes. Those who got along well with Temujin would be treated well, and those who opposed him would receive no mercy. By the year 1200, Jamukha convened a kurultay, bringing together the Mongol tribal leaders. At this kurultay, he took an oath and received the title of Gurkhan or Gurkan, which would make him the khan of all Mongols. This title actually belonged to Toghrul Khan, the khan of the Keraits. With this move, Jamukha pitted both Toghrul Khan and Temujin, who was subordinate to him, against himself. But Jamukha had planned everything in advance. He had made an agreement with Temujin's former tribe, the Tayichi'uds, and he would be the one to start the war. Nevertheless, Toghrul Khan and Temujin's military unit were much larger. Moreover, the shamans said that divine power was on the side of Toghrul Khan and Temujin. Jamukha's supporters were disturbed by the large Mongol army and the shamans' words. They said it would be more appropriate to surrender before the war even began. Nevertheless, the war began. Toghrul Khan pursued Jamukha. Temujin was assigned to fight the Tayichi'uds. When the war began, Jamukha and the Tayichi'uds realized they could not win this war. Therefore, they retreated from the battlefield and fled. But during the war, Temujin received a severe wound in the neck, and Jelme, one of the commanders, stayed with him until he recovered. The enemy must not know about this wound. If they found out, they could gain morale and launch a counter-attack. The war was concluded without announcing Temujin's wound. Jamukha had fled the war and would seek new allies to regroup. The Tayichi'uds were defeated, some submitted to Temujin's command, and others were killed. Temujin learned new lessons from this war and made new decisions. Plundering would not be carried out before a war was concluded. Because if they only plundered and retreated, that tribe could recover and attack again. Another rule was that each soldier would give a share of his spoils to the widowed wives and orphaned children of each enemy soldier he killed. Thus, he would win the hearts of all the people. According to another decision, all spoils would be shared equally among the people. This decision pleased the poor people but angered the nobles. But still, Temujin treated everyone equally. He did not favor anyone because they were relatives. He applied these decisions during his campaign against the Tatars in 1210. He first completely defeated the Tatars. Then he carried out plundering, collected the spoils, and distributed them equally to everyone. He had shares given to the Tatar widows and orphaned children. He only killed the Tatar leaders and allowed the Tatars to submit to him, and even allowed marriages between Mongols and Tatars. He himself adopted a Tatar orphan. Thus, he managed to unite both tribes under one roof. To further solidify inter-tribal brotherhood, Huqin then organized his army according to the decimal system. He divided his warriors into units of ten called Arban. The 10 people in each group would henceforth be brothers to each other. Regardless of their tribe, they would live in unity, fight together. Even if one of them fell captive, the others would fight to the death until they rescued him. The eldest man in the group would be the leader of the Arban. Ten of these ten-person Arban groups formed a hundred-person Zagun battalion, and again, 10 Zagun battalions came together to form a thousand-person Mingan battalion. Finally, 10 Mingan formed a ten-thousand-person division. This decimal military unit system was also applied to the civilian population, and members of dispersed tribes were mixed into decimal groups. In this way, old tribal identities dissolved, and an understanding of unconditional loyalty to the khan and the dynasty took root. This decimal military system belonged to the great Hun emperor Modu. Hemu had actually borrowed this system from the Proto-Turks. You can also access the documentary where I explain the history of Modu and the Great Hun Empire on my channel. Temujin now wanted to bring his struggle with Jamukha to an end. Jamukha had become strong again. Toghrul Khan remained equidistant from both of them, as he had been before. Thus, he did not allow one to become powerful alone. In 1203, Temujin wanted to marry his eldest son, Jochi, to Toghrul Khan's daughter to gain an advantage over Jamukha. He presented his idea, but this offer was definitively rejected. Toghrul Khan knew that by rejecting this offer, he had angered Temujin. He had turned against him, and a war might be necessary. However, he also knew that Temujin now possessed great power and did not want to risk fighting him, but he was also disturbed by his growing power. He then made a decision. He changed his mind, said he would allow his daughter to marry him, and invited him to come to him for the wedding. But all this was actually part of a plan. Toghrul Khan had arranged an assassination. Temujin, trusting Toghrul Khan, who had been like a father to him for many years, set out with a small group, leaving his soldiers behind. When he was still a day's journey away, Temujin learned of this assassination plot. Toghrul Khan's soldiers were approaching. Temujin could not risk fighting with a small group. He ordered those with him to scatter in all directions and managed to escape this ambush by creating a diversion. This escape lasted for days. Khan thought that Temujin, who had fled from him and from whom he had not heard for days, was either dead or had retreated entirely to the east. For this reason, he was holding celebrations in his camp. Temujin had escaped this ambush, but he had regrouped. With his soldiers, he rapidly advanced towards the Kerait settlement one night. Toghrul Khan was unaware of Temujin approaching him until the moment of the attack. After a siege that lasted three days, Toghrul Khan's soldiers either retreated or defected to Temujin's side. The Keraits were defeated, just like the previous tribes. However, Toghrul Khan managed to escape and sought refuge with the Naimans to the west. After this, Toghrul Khan's fate is uncertain. He was probably killed by the Naimans. Temujin's next target was Jamukha again. But unlike Toghrul Khan, he had managed to form an alliance with the Naimans. For this reason, Temujin added another tribe to his target list. The Naimans moved to attack in 1204. However, this tribe's army was larger than Temujin's soldiers. Nevertheless, the Mongol army, formed by the decimal system, managed to defeat the large Naiman army with the Vurkaç tactic. In this battle, his old friend Jamukha also fought alongside the Naimans. For this reason, he was also defeated. However, he managed to survive by escaping into the depths of the forest with a group of soldiers. He lived as a fugitive in the forest for about a year. Finally, tired of his fugitive life, Jamukha's men captured him and handed him over to Temujin. They thought they could win his mercy this way. However, Temujin had a character that valued loyalty above all else. Instead of rewarding these men who had betrayed Jamukha, he executed each of them. Temujin offered Jamukha one last time to be friends as in the old days. However, Jamukha thought his actions were unforgivable and asked Temujin to execute him in a manner befitting a nobleman. Jamukha's request was fulfilled. Thus, Temujin had eliminated all his major rivals in the Mongol steppe. In a few years, Temujin had escaped from a fugitive life, eliminated the Merkits who had abducted his wife, his former tribe the Tayichi'uds who had betrayed him, the Tatars who had killed his father, the tribe of Toghrul Khan the Keraits who had planned an assassination, and finally the Naimans who had allied with Jamukha, and united the peoples of all the tribes under the Mongol banner. Becoming the sole ruler of the Mongolian steppe, Temujin convened a great kurultay in 1206 at the foot of the sacred Burkhan Khaldun mountain, on the banks of the Onon River. It was the largest kurultay the Mongols had ever seen. Festivals were held, music was played, and shamans performed rituals. At the kurultay, he gathered not only the tribes that had pledged allegiance to him but also the leaders of the defeated enemy tribes. Temujin abolished the titles of the leaders of the tribes and declared that the name of this new nation, which he had united under one banner, would be the Great Mongol Nation. Temujin then, at the great kurultay, abandoned the traditional title of Gurkhan used for himself and gave himself the title of Genghis Khan. From then on, he would be known and remembered not by the name Temujin but by the name Genghis. At his enthronement ceremony, nine white banners made from horse tails were erected. The white tug symbolized peace, and the black tug symbolized war. And Genghis Khan would now rule his country in times of peace and lead his army in times of war to new conquests. Genghis Khan's first task was to enact new laws with the consciousness of being a great state. He created a comprehensive set of Mongol customs called the Great Law, or Yassa. It imposed severe penalties for crimes such as theft and adultery. It prohibited sources of unrest like domestic violence, kidnapping of women and children, and blood feuds. It prevented families from demanding bride price when marrying off their daughters. It stipulated that wild animals could be hunted in a certain quantity at a certain time. He embraced religious tolerance. He allowed the free practice of all religions. He did not collect taxes from religious leaders. He granted privileges to people with professions and established rules to ensure the safety of trade caravans. Most importantly, to guarantee the future of the state, he ensured that the Khan who would rule the Mongol Nation would always be chosen by the kurultay. Thus, he wanted to prevent fratricide and protect his people from internal strife. Furthermore, the family or the ten-person unit to which a person belonged would be held responsible for the crime committed by that person. The rules of the entire law applied to everyone, even himself. No one was granted privileges above the rules of the Yassa. Genghis Khan's law remained in effect for 50 years after his death. Another major move by Genghis Khan was the establishment of the postal system. Postal stations were established throughout the country at approximately 30 km intervals. Fast horse riders called "arrow messengers" were trained to deliver orders. The postal system was also opened to the general public. Thus, all kinds of information could be transmitted quickly to all corners of the country. All these moves made Genghis Khan the absolute ruler of his state. After 1206, he was no longer just a tribal chief but a ruler at the imperial level. In his own words, he set out to conquer the world by the will of heaven. He moved from small unification wars in the steppe to conquests that would change world history. Thus, his ascension to the throne of his state, the Mongol Empire, was completed. Genghis Khan rose from a tribal chief, Temujin, to the rank of world ruler, whose armies would shake a large part of the globe. After being proclaimed the khan of the Mongol tribes in 1206, Genghis Khan quickly embarked on conquests. Before him lay a boundless world and wealthy neighboring empires. The period between 1206 and 1227 is a chronological account of the campaigns he undertook during his reign. During this time, Genghis Khan and his armies conquered a large part of Asia, establishing the largest land empire in history. Here are the important battles, conquests, and challenges faced by Genghis Khan from his enthronement to his death. Immediately after being proclaimed emperor, Genghis Khan turned his attention to powers in the nearby geography in 1207 to expand the borders of his empire. His first target was the Tanguts, located southwest of Mongol territory, or the Western Xia dynasty in history. Western Xia was a wealthy dynasty strategically located on the Silk Road. However, it was a vassal of the Jin dynasty in China. In 1209, Genghis Khan crossed the Gobi Desert with his powerful cavalry and entered Western Xia territory. In this campaign, the Mongols encountered walled cities and fortresses for the first time and experienced sieges. Although the Tanguts initially resisted, they were forced to submit to the determination of the Mongol army in the face of sieges. Genghis Khan established his headquarters in the Ordos region and marched on the Xia capital, Zhongxing. In the winter of 1209-1210, the Tanguts were forced to sue for peace. Finally, the ruler of Western Xia declared his allegiance to Genghis Khan, accepted defeat by paying tribute. The Mongol armies, on the other hand, learned city warfare for the first time thanks to the harsh siege experience. This campaign was the first step of the Mongol Empire on its path to world conquest. With the submission of Western Xia, the Mongols had crossed a critical threshold to approach the gates of China. During this period, Genghis Khan also consolidated the internal order of his empire. During the Western Xia campaign, he had the opportunity to test the capabilities and limits of his army. By generously distributing the captured spoils, he solidified the loyalty of his commanders. Furthermore, the siege equipment obtained from the Tanguts would be useful in future conquests. The period between 1207 and 1210 was the years when the Mongols united under one banner and made their first serious contact with the surrounding settled civilizations as a single force. Although Western Xia was not fully annexed at the end of this campaign, Genghis Khan made them his vassals and gained confidence for his next major target. This target was the powerful Jin dynasty ruling Northern China. The Jurchen-origin Jin dynasty, ruling in northern China, was one of the wealthiest and most populous empires of Genghis Khan's era. The Jurchens were originally one of the Tungusic peoples living north of Manchuria and east of Siberia. However, they migrated to southern Manchuria, took over these lands, drove the local Khitan people to the west, settled down, and gradually became sinicized. In the past, the Mongols were semi-nomadic vassals who paid tribute to the Jin Empire. But now the roles were reversed. In 1211, Genghis Khan moved his massive Mongol cavalry army towards Jin territory. The official reason for this attack was that the Jin emperor demanded that Genghis Khan kneel before him and pledge allegiance to the emperor on behalf of the Mongols. Genghis Khan, of course, rejected this demand with great anger. The Jin emperor had made a grave mistake, because Genghis Khan launched a counter-attack on this pretext. His goal was not only to respond to the disrespect shown but also to obtain immense spoils and territory from the Jin dynasty. The Jin Emperor was extremely confident. He was waiting for Genghis Khan's arrival and thought he would easily defeat him. It is even reported that he said, "Our empire is like the sea, yours is a handful of sand. Why should we fear you?" At that time, one-third of the world's population lived in Chinese territories, as it does today. The population of the Jin dynasty was 50 million. The population of the Song dynasty, ruling in the main Chinese territories to the south, was 60 million. Despite the Mongols uniting different tribes, their population did not exceed 12 million. The number of soldiers in the army was limited to a few tens of thousands. However, the Mongols were much healthier than the Jin people. Consuming horse meat and koumiss constantly, the Mongols, being protein-fed, had large, muscular bodies and strong skeletal systems. They could travel for days in constant motion and survive in harsh natural conditions. The Jin people, on the other hand, generally ate grains and agricultural products, so their skeletal structures were not sufficiently developed, making them weaker and more frail. Moreover, living a settled life, they did not know how to cope with harsh conditions. These factors gave the Mongols an advantage against the large Jin army during the war. Finally, in 1211, the campaign in China began with the Mongols crossing the Great Wall of China for the first time. The Mongol army, as swift cavalry of the desert and steppe, descended upon the agricultural plains of China. Genghis Khan's generals, the famous Subutai and Jebe Noyan, led the vanguard while Genghis Khan advanced with the main forces. The Mongols defeated the Jin forces with surprising maneuvers. Then they rapidly captured forts and cities one by one. Despite the numerical superiority of the Jin army, the Mongols broke the resistance of the cities with psychological warfare and intimidation tactics. Cities that surrendered were generally left unharmed. However, those that resisted were brutally punished. This instilled fear in other forts and cities, leading them to surrender. By 1213, the Mongols had gained control of the Yellow River basin. Their target was now the heart of the Jin Empire, Yanjing, present-day Beijing. In 1214, Yanjing was besieged. This siege was long and difficult. The Mongols learned to use captured engineers and brought siege equipment such as ballistas and catapults. It is even rumored that Genghis Khan resorted to the trick of showing his army as larger by setting up fake tents around the city. But he also tasted his first serious defeat in the war against the Jin. For example, in 1214, the Mongols suffered losses in a surprise raid by a Jin general and were forced to retreat for a short period. However, the strategic advantage always lay with the Mongols. Genghis Khan surprised the Jin armies by resorting to guerrilla tactics when necessary and rapidly changing positions in devastated lands. Finally, in 1215, the Jin capital Yanjing fell. The Mongols captured the city and carried out looting. The fall of Yanjing was Genghis Khan's greatest victory in China. As a result of this war, the Jin emperor narrowly escaped by fleeing to Kaifeng in the south. Later, he, who had demanded allegiance from Genghis Khan, now pledged allegiance to him. Along with many captives, he gave a princess as a bride to Genghis Khan. Genghis Khan did not conquer all of Jin territory. His aim was to obtain a constant stream of tribute revenue from there. He withdrew his army north of the Great Wall of China. A small region south of the Great Wall was left to the Jin dynasty. The lands in Manchuria to the east were given to the Khitans, the former inhabitants of this region, who had sworn allegiance to Genghis Khan. As long as both fulfilled their obligations and remained loyal to the Mongols, they could govern their countries as they wished. The spoils and technology obtained from the wealthy cities of Jin further increased Mongol power. At the end of this war, the Mongols proved to the entire world that they could defeat a settled and advanced empire for the first time. The victory against Jin solidified Genghis Khan's place in world history, while for the Mongols, it meant a tremendous amount of spoils, horses, silk, artisans, and agricultural products. The Khitans, who had fled the oppression of the Jin dynasty long ago, left Manchuria and migrated to Central Asia. They settled in the lands of the first Muslim Turkic state, the Kara-Khanids, and later made the Kara-Khanid state their vassals, establishing a state known as the Qara Khitai. The Qara Khitai were a Buddhist society. However, since both the Kara-Khanids and the Uyghur Turks living there were Muslims, they were constantly oppressed by the Khitans. Reciting the adhan was forbidden. Muslims were not allowed to perform prayers and religious ceremonies. In 1218, the Turks in this region, although they knew that Genghis Khan was not a Muslim, were well aware that he was just and that he allowed religious tolerance in the places he conquered. To escape the oppression of the sinicized Khitans, they sent representatives to Genghis Khan. They requested his help and support. Genghis Khan accepted this request. However, Central Asia was not a priority region for him. His priority was always East Asia, where the Mongols lived. For this reason, he assigned his commander Jebe, along with 20,000 soldiers, to defend the Muslims against the Qara Khitai. He did not personally participate in this campaign. Jebe attacked the Qara Khitai and beheaded their ruler. He removed the oppression of the Muslims and said they could practice their religion freely. No damage was done to the surroundings, and no looting was carried out. But still, this victory would make Genghis Khan even richer. Because the Qara Khitai lands, under the rule of Muslim Turks, became subordinate to the Mongols. New lands were gained, and control of the Silk Road from China to Central Asia came under Genghis Khan's rule. His old enemy, the Qara Khitai ruler, was killed. Furthermore, by winning the hearts of the Muslims as a defender of religions, Genghis Khan would earn significant income from the trade continuing between the Muslim states in the Middle East and China. While Genghis Khan was subjugating the Qara Khitai, a different power was rising to his west. The Khwarazmian Empire, a Turkic state centered in present-day Iran and Turkestan. The Khwarazmian Sultan Muhammad II Ala ad-Din was a powerful ruler controlling vast territories. Genghis Khan wanted to establish good relations with this state and initiate a commercial relationship between them. He conveyed the following words to the Sultan through an envoy: "My greatest desire is to live in peace with you. I have conquered Northern China and brought the tribes under my dominion. I have many warriors and mines. I have no desire to conquer other lands. Developing trade between us will be beneficial for both of us." Thus, a period of peace and trade began between the Mongols and the Khwarazmians. Genghis Khan even sent gifts and trade caravans to the Khwarazmian Sultan of Para to ensure the continuation of peace and the development of trade. However, an incident in 1218 turned all balances upside down. A trade caravan sent by Genghis Khan was stopped by Inalchik, the governor of Otrar, one of the Khwarazmian governors, on charges of espionage. The merchants were killed, and their goods were confiscated. Genghis Khan sent envoys to the Khwarazmian Sultan to ensure the continuation of peace. He demanded the governor's execution. However, Governor Inalchik was the uncle of Sultan Muhammad, and he did not want to execute him. One of the Mongol envoys sent was killed. The other was sent back to Genghis Khan with his hair cut off. This situation enraged Genghis Khan. He swore revenge and decided to launch a campaign against the Khwarazmians. War was now inevitable, and Genghis Khan was about to embark on one of the greatest military endeavors of his life. The campaigns launched by Genghis Khan against the Khwarazmians would cause the question of whether he was a hero or a tyrant to be added to his image up to that point. But why? The Khwarazmian Empire was a Muslim state that brought together the Turkic, Arab, and Persian civilizations of the time. It was a country where people with the most advanced knowledge in almost all scientific fields, such as astronomy, mathematics, and linguistics, lived together. The literacy rate was the highest in the world.

It was much more than the rest. Technology, trade, and education were at their peak. The great destruction that the Mongols would create in cities like Bukhara, Samarkand, Otrar, Nishapur, Termez, Ghazni, Hamadan, Tabriz, and Tbilisi would deeply affect the fate of the world and reshape the future. It is rumored that Genghis Khan told the local people living in these cities, "Commanders, elders, and citizens, know that God has given me the empire of the world from east to west. Whoever surrenders will be spared, but those who resist will be destroyed along with their wives, children, and families." Some cities would not resist at all, some would hold out for a few weeks, and some would withstand the siege for a few months at most. Each city would be plundered, and its people would be exiled from the city. The Mongols needed people with professions, such as scribes, physicians, judges, astronomers, engineers, teachers, and artisans, and they would use them as a working class throughout their country. Those without professions would be taken as slaves and used as hostages and porters to conquer other cities. Those who were useless would be massacred. Enemy soldiers and rulers would be put to the sword without exception. The destruction and massacres were recorded and turned into stories and legends all over the world. The brutality and invincible power of Genghis Khan, exaggerated by the Mongols' own writings and stories, turned into a flood of fear in the world. Thus, their conquests became even easier. Although the numbers are considered exaggerated today, some historical records of the massacres exist. For example, during the conquest of Nishapur, Genghis Khan's son-in-law, Tokuchar, was killed by an arrow shot from the ramparts. Genghis Khan asked his pregnant daughter to determine the punishment for the city due to her husband's death. His daughter said she wanted all living beings in the city to be killed. Everyone, men, women, old, or young, was put to the sword. Even cats, dogs, and stable animals were killed because she wanted all living things to be destroyed. According to Persian texts, 1,747,000 people were massacred in Nishapur. Similarly, it is written that 1,600,000 people were massacred in Herat. It is stated that the total number of people who died in Central Asia alone within 5 years was 15 million. These numbers meant that each Mongol soldier killed more than 100 people. Considering the people who were spared, it leads to the conclusion that the large population in Central Asia should have been able to easily resist the Mongols, which means that the number of people massacred was exaggerated and used as propaganda material. However, this does not change the fact that the Mongols carried out massacres. Archaeological studies show that the number of people killed was about one-eleventh of the population of any city. It is thought that 5 million people lived in the lands of the Khwarazmian dynasty at that time. This could mean that approximately 500,000 people were massacred. Even if this number is not as high as the exaggerated figures, it still reveals that a great massacre was carried out. It can also be said that the complete destruction of some cities, the destruction of agricultural lands and water channels, and the fact that other survivors had to continue their lives under very difficult conditions may have indirectly led to the deaths of these people.

In 1219, Genghis Khan entered the lands of the Khwarazmian dynasty with an army of approximately 100 to 150,000 men. For the Mongols, this would be the first major lightning campaign covering thousands of kilometers. The powerful cities of Central Asia were targeted one by one. First, the city of Otrar was besieged, which was the city ruled by the governor who initiated the incident. The Mongols captured Otrar after a siege of 5 months and razed the city to the ground. It is rumored that after its governor, Inalchik, was captured, he was executed by pouring molten silver into his eyes and ears by order of Genghis Khan. This was a symbolic punishment for killing merchants and confiscating their goods. This terrible punishment showed the Mongols' brutality in retaliation to the entire region. Genghis Khan then divided his army and directed it towards two major targets. His son Jochi and his commander Jebe captured the cities of the Syr Darya Basin in the north, while Genghis Khan, along with his other two sons Chagatai and Ogedai, marched into the heart of Khwarazm, beyond the Maverannahr and the Amu Darya. The richest Islamic cities of the time, such as Samarkand and Bukhara, were besieged one by one. Although the city of Bukhara resisted at first, it later opened its doors to the Mongols. It was one of the most magnificent cities of its time, famous for its high walls, mosque, and minaret. This mosque and minaret were built in the 12th century by the Karakhanid ruler Arslan Khan. The minaret, with its height of 45 meters, seemed to reach for the sky. When Genghis Khan entered the city, he gathered all the people in the grand mosque and gave his famous speech. "O people! Know that you have committed great sins, and the elders among you have committed these sins. If you ask me what proof I have for these words, I will say that it is God's punishment. If you had not committed great sins, God would not have sent a punishment like me upon you," it is rumored he said. Then, all the armed resisters in the city were put to the sword. The rest of the people were taken as slaves or released. The city's treasures were distributed to the Mongol army. The city was burned, destroyed, and plundered. All the wooden structures were destroyed in the fire. The intact structures were demolished by the Mongol army itself. Only the minaret remained standing. Because, according to legend, Genghis Khan was amazed by the splendor of this work. Looking at the city from the top of the minaret, he said, "Such a beautiful structure should not be destroyed." Therefore, although Bukhara was reduced to ruins, the minaret remained standing. The plundering and burning of Bukhara had the effect of a harbinger of doomsday in the Islamic world. Immediately after, Samarkand suffered a similar fate. When Samarkand fell in the spring of 1220, the Mongols took the surrendered soldiers out of the city and killed most of them. The remaining people were not put to the sword but were used as human shields in sieges to instill fear. This strategy greatly intimidated the cities that would resist. Sultan Muhammad Khwarazmshah began to flee towards the deserts after his armies were defeated one after another. The Mongols did not let him go. Genghis Khan sent his two most trusted commanders, Subutai and Jebe, with a cavalry unit of 20,000 men to pursue Khwarazmshah. This duo, with a tactical maneuver, pursued Sultan Muhammad to the islands off the coast of the Caspian Sea. Sultan Khwarazmshah fell ill and died on an island where he had fled in the winter of 1220. Thus, the Mongols eliminated their great enemy not in a single battle, but as a result of a relentless pursuit. Sultan's son Jalal al-Din Khwarazmshah, after his father's death, gathered his army and continued the resistance against the Mongols. Jalal al-Din was a brave warrior and achieved an important victory against a Mongol division in the Battle of Parvan in 1221. This was perhaps the first open-field defeat for the Mongols. However, Jalal al-Din's success did not last long. At the end of the same year, he encountered troops commanded by Genghis Khan himself in the battle on the banks of the Indus River. When Jalal al-Din was defeated, he rode his horse into the river and escaped to the opposite bank, narrowly avoiding capture. Genghis Khan watched this escape from the riverbank and, according to legend, admired his enemy's courage, saying, "His father should be proud to have such a son." Jalal al-Din Khwarazmshah's escape from the Indus River is one of the unforgettable moments of the Mongol campaign in Khwarazm. This miniature depicts the escape of Sultan Jalal al-Din of Khwarazm from Genghis Khan's forces by jumping into the flowing waters of the river with his horse after the Battle of the Indus in 1221. In the picture, Genghis Khan and Mongol cavalry are seen on the right, and Jalal al-Din crossing to the opposite bank of the river on the left. Although the Mongols witnessed this epic escape, they could not capture Jalal al-Din and did not attempt to pursue him beyond the Indus. Thanks to this, Jalal al-Din was able to try to organize resistance in the region for a while longer. The Khwarazmian campaign can be considered the peak of Genghis Khan's military genius. Between 1219 and 1221, centers of science and trade of the time such as Bukhara, Samarkand, Urgench, Herat, and Balkh were devastated. Millions of people died or were displaced. The Mongols were known for their brutal methods. For this reason, the Islamic world began to see Genghis Khan as the harbinger of doomsday or the wrath of God. However, there were also those who believed that Mongol rule was not permanent and that it was a divine test. Later, when Genghis Khan's grandchildren converted to Islam, some historians began to interpret him as an instrument of fate sent to cleanse internal corruption. In summary, the Khwarazmian campaign includes Genghis Khan's most brilliant victories and his harshest actions. With this campaign, the balance of power in Central Asia was overturned, and the lands considered the heart of the Islamic world came under Mongol rule. If asked who Genghis Khan's greatest enemy was, we can, in a sense, point to Sultan Muhammad of Khwarazm. Because his most extensive war was with him. Indeed, the Khwarazmians were among the rare powers that could exhibit organized resistance against the Mongols. However, in the end, they too were doomed to defeat. The impact of this campaign on shaping world history is immense. Control of the Silk Road passed to the Mongols. The barriers between East and West began to fall. Furthermore, Genghis Khan's terrifying image was most solidified by this campaign. In many cultures, he began to be remembered as the most fearsome invader the planet had ever seen. The raids into the Caucasus and Eastern Europe, which took place as an extension of the Khwarazmian campaign, were carried out under Genghis Khan's direct orders, even if not under his personal command, and further expanded the geographical reach of Mongol conquests. These campaigns, led by Subutai and Jebe Noyan, actually began with the pursuit of the Khwarazmian Sultan. In 1221, these two commanders evaded the Khwarazmian armies pursuing them and advanced to the Caucasus Mountains. They entered the regions of Azerbaijan and Georgia. The Kingdom of Georgia was a powerful state that had achieved successes in the Crusades just a few years earlier. However, the Mongols defeated the Georgians several times. The legendary queen of Georgia, Rusudan, could not withstand the Mongols, and the capital Tiflis was plundered in 1222. The Mongols then defeated the mountain peoples of the Caucasus, such as the Lezgins and Circassians. Crossing the Caucasus, the Mongol cavalry found vast Kipchak steppes before them. Here they encountered the Cuman-Kipchak Confederation and some Russian principalities allied with them. The Kipchaks were a nomadic Turkic people living north of the Black Sea, and they had relationships with the Russian principalities that were sometimes friendly and sometimes hostile. The arrival of the Mongols overturned the balance of power in the region. In 1223, Subutai and Jebe encountered the united Russian-Kipchak army on the banks of the Kalka River. The Battle of the Kalka River, fought on May 31, 1223, became a turning point in Eastern European history. The Mongols inflicted a heavy defeat on the army composed of Russians and Kipchaks. According to legend, some Russian nobles were captured, placed under a wooden platform, and the Mongols held a victory feast on top of them. After the battle, Subutai conducted a reconnaissance mission up to the lands of Kievan Rus'. He scouted the vicinity of Kyiv and retreated. Because their primary objective, the pursuit of Khwarazmshah, had been completed. There was no plan for permanent conquest in that geography yet. In 1224, Subutai and Jebe returned to Mongolia, drawing a vast circle from north of the Caspian Sea across the steppes of present-day Kazakhstan. As a result of these raids, the peoples of Eastern Europe encountered the terror of the Mongols, whom they called Tatars, for the first time. Especially in Russian chronicles, this period is described as the arrival of invaders called the Terrible, the scourge of God. These reconnaissance expeditions, which took place while Genghis Khan was still alive, were not a permanent occupation. However, they were a harbinger of a storm. Indeed, after Genghis Khan's death, under the leadership of his grandson Batu Khan, the Mongols would launch major campaigns into Russia and Eastern Europe between 1237 and 1242, dominating these regions. Therefore, the reconnaissance raid of Subutai and Jebe was like a vanguard wave that paved the way for future conquerors. Genghis Khan's strategic genius is evident here as well. Not content with a single enemy, he sent small units to distant geographies to scout weak points and potential plunder areas. The information they brought back was invaluable for future conquest plans. During this period, the Mongols fought in different climates and cultures for the first time, thousands of kilometers away from their homeland. This gave them the quality of a universal army. When Subutai returned to Mongolia after these raids, he was known as Genghis Khan's most trusted commander. In short, with the raids of 1221-1224, Genghis Khan's state tested the reach of its power by scouting the area extending from the Black Sea to the Caspian Sea. As Genghis Khan approached the end of his life, he turned his gaze back to the East. The Jin dynasty in China had not yet been completely destroyed. But before that, there was an unfinished business. Western Xia, the Tangut Kingdom. The Tanguts, who had submitted to the Mongols years ago, had not provided the necessary military support to the Mongols during the Khwarazmian campaign and had desired to escape Mongol rule in Genghis Khan's absence. While the Mongols were fighting the Khwarazmians, the Tangut king, assuming the Mongols were weakened, inclined towards rebellion. This situation was unacceptable to Genghis Khan. In 1226, Genghis Khan, about 65 years old, embarked on his last major campaign. He wanted to completely subdue the Tanguts and expand the empire's borders. In the autumn of 1226, the Mongol army crossed the Gobi Desert and once again entered the lands of Western Xia. The Mongols' siege techniques had now become very advanced. With engineers captured from China, they could build catapults and siege towers. Thus, Tangut cities fell one after another. Genghis Khan laid siege to the Tangut capital, Zhongxing. During this siege, the Mongol army faced fierce resistance and struggled with harsh winter conditions. In early 1227, before the war had concluded, an event that could be called a disaster for the Mongols occurred. One day, while hunting, Genghis Khan fell from his horse in an accident and injured his internal organs. Due to his advanced age, this injury left him severely weakened. Nevertheless, he refused to abandon the siege, as the Tanguts did not surrender and sent him insulting words. His commanders pleaded, "Think of your health, we can conquer it next year." He rejected their request. According to Chinese sources, Genghis Khan continued to lead his army with a final effort despite his illness. At the foot of the Lupen Mountains near the Tangut capital, the Mongol army defeated the Tangut reinforcement troops. However, Genghis Khan's condition was deteriorating. The Mongols would conquer the lands of Western Xia, but they would lose their great ruler, Genghis Khan. There are different accounts regarding the cause of Genghis Khan's death. Official Mongol and Chinese sources state that he died of an illness during the campaign in August 1227. Perhaps an internal hemorrhage or infection triggered by his fall from his horse, or perhaps an epidemic disease brought on by the fatigue of the long campaign. Malaria, typhus, or plague are among the estimates that laid him low. The accounts of travelers like Marco Polo are more dramatic. Polo writes that Genghis Khan was wounded by an arrow during the Tangut siege. Another European missionary, Plano Carpini, makes a legendary claim that Genghis Khan died one night in his tent from a lightning strike. Mongol folk legends tell a completely different story. The beautiful daughter of the Tangut king was captured by Genghis Khan and brought to his tent as a concubine. This princess, seeking revenge, wounded Genghis Khan with a dagger she had hidden, causing his death. Of course, most of these accounts are legendary. Most historians agree that Genghis Khan most likely died a natural death due to complications from the injuries he sustained from falling off his horse or from an illness contracted in the desert conditions. When Genghis Khan passed away on August 18, 1227, the Tangut capital was still resisting. The news of his death was strictly kept secret within the army. By Genghis Khan's will, the commanders did not announce the Khan's death until the enemy had completely surrendered. Indeed, the capital Zhongxing was captured a month after Genghis Khan's death, and the Mongols razed the city to the ground, erasing Tangut civilization from the map. Thus, the last campaign initiated by Genghis Khan ended in victory after his death. Genghis Khan's funeral ceremony and burial process are among the most mysterious and legendary subjects in history. How Genghis Khan's funeral was conducted and where he was buried has always been a subject of debate. The Mongols applied an extremely secretive and unusual burial ritual to ensure that the location of their khans' graves would never be revealed. First of all, when Genghis Khan died, his body was not mummified or kept around for a long time. According to sources, his body was wrapped in a type of felt or cloth and quickly taken to his homeland, Mongolia. It is known that Genghis Khan wished to be buried near the sacred Burhan Khaldun mountain, where he was born and raised and which he considered sacred. This was one of the sacred lands of the Mongols, near the Onon and Kherlen rivers. Indeed, when the funeral procession arrived in Mongolia, burial procedures began at the place the Khan had desired. The funeral ceremony was like a secret military operation. The Mongol commanders, who did not want the news of the Khan's death to be announced, prevented even civilians along the route from seeing the procession. According to legend, everyone they encountered on the way back to Mongolia, whether enemy or their own people, was killed so that no one could learn the location of the grave. It is unknown how exaggerated this account is, but it is widespread enough to be taken seriously. Even all the servants and soldiers who attended the funeral ceremony were buried. For example, the Italian historian Ramusio writes that all 2,000 soldiers who went to the place where the Khan was buried were drowned there. Another legend states that those who carried out the burial were eliminated by a group upon their return. The aim was for only the dead to know the secret of the grave. Furthermore, it is reported that after the Khan was buried, the course of a riverbed was diverted over the grave site, and the grave was submerged. This way, no one would be able to notice that there was a grave there. Another legend tells of 1,000 horses repeatedly galloping over the grave after it was dug, leveling the ground. Thus, the grave site would not be discernible and would appear as part of nature. It is also said that a horse was sacrificed at Genghis Khan's burial according to Mongol tradition. When the Khan died, some of his favorite horses and possibly his servants were sacrificed to accompany and serve him in the afterlife. It is also said that valuable weapons, ornaments, and treasures were among the items taken to the Khan's grave. This was another reason for hiding the grave to protect it from plunderers in the future. At the kurultai in 1229, where Ogedai was elected Khan, three days of mourning were observed in memory of Genghis Khan, and 30 young girls were sacrificed. These sacrifices were made to ensure that the Khan would be well received and served in the afterlife. According to Mongol belief, Genghis Khan's spirit had ascended to the eternal blue sky, but his body had to be safe in the earth. In modern times, especially since the second half of the 20th century, archaeologists and researchers have seen finding Genghis Khan's tomb as illuminating a legend. However, whenever such an attempt was made, either technical difficulties or mysterious obstacles arose. According to one belief, there is a curse protecting the area where the tomb is located. If the tomb is revealed, the world will be shaken by a great disaster. Since this instilled a mixture of respect and fear among the Mongols, the people in Mongolia are reluctant towards these searches. In fact, when Soviet researchers attempted to find the tomb in the 1930s, the outbreak of World War I immediately afterward was referred to as Genghis Khan's curse. Of course, even if this was a coincidence, legends are born this way. In light of all these accounts, it is understood that Genghis Khan's funeral ceremony was filled with extraordinary secrecy and sacrificial rituals. Although modern archaeologists and historians cannot fully determine how much is fiction and how much is reality, the common opinion is this: Genghis Khan's tomb was deliberately hidden, and its location was ensured to be forgotten. For the Mongols, this was a requirement of their respect and faith for their khans. They managed to create a veil of state-level secrecy to ensure that the eternal rest of their great founding leader was not disturbed and its sanctity was preserved. Therefore, Genghis Khan's funeral ceremony is among the most mysterious burial ceremonies of all time.

Genghis Khan was a highly complex and extraordinary leader as a person. When describing him, it is necessary to consider both his virtuous aspects and his harsh sides. So, what kind of character did Genghis Khan have? In one aspect, Genghis Khan was generous, protective, and just towards his loyal friends and devoted servants. Mongol sources frequently emphasize his generosity and sharing. For example, he attached great importance to justice in the distribution of spoils, distributing shares down to the lowest-ranking soldier in his army. Thanks to this generosity and sense of justice, he forged a strong bond of loyalty around him. His companions called him "noor," meaning he was like an elder brother who shared the same table with them, not like a lord to whom they had sworn mutual loyalty. On the other hand, Genghis Khan was merciless and harsh towards his enemies. Anyone who did not obey, betrayed, or resisted did not deserve mercy in his eyes. For this reason, he applied extremely harsh punishments on the battlefield and in conquered cities. A contemporary chronicler describes Genghis as extremely loyal to his friends and equally merciless to his enemies, which is an accurate assessment. Another dimension of his character was his charisma and leadership skills. Genghis Khan had an extraordinarily charismatic personality. From childhood, he was able to influence people. Even in an environment of distrust among tribes, his ability to gather a loyal core group around him showed his persuasive ability and natural leadership qualities. It was said that his voice was loud and his gaze sharp. It was said that when he spoke, he could influence crowds. He was described as having an iron will. It was thanks to this will that he continued his struggle without faltering even in very difficult situations. Meritocracy held an important place in his understanding of leadership. That is, not the lineage and position of individuals, but their ability and loyalty were decisive. Genghis Khan listened to any useful idea, regardless of who gave it, and gave talented individuals, even if they were his enemies, the opportunity to rise. Indeed, he appointed many people of low origin but with talent to high positions in his army. For example, making Subutai, the son of a blacksmith, one of his greatest generals is an example of this. Discipline and simplicity were also noticeable in Genghis Khan's character. He did not like excessive luxury and lived a simple life. According to a famous account, even when he captured the rich treasures of China and Iran, he rejected a life of ostentation, saying, "I eat the same food as my people and wear the same clothes." Instead of organizing entertainment in palaces, he preferred simple ceremonies in his camp. This modest lifestyle strengthened his image as one of "us" among the people. He even had eloquent words comparing himself to a goat rather than a high mountain. He advised against arrogance, saying, "If a goat climbs to the top, it becomes the highest." Genghis Khan did not consider boasting and waste suitable for leaders. This humility was, of course, combined with political wisdom. He knew that the real power was not arrogance but the support of the people. In summary, Genghis Khan was a person who embodied two extremes: charismatic, intelligent, determined, but capable of being ruthless when necessary. He was as affectionate as a father figure to his friends and as harsh as a steppe storm punishing his enemies. His will was like iron. Once he made a decision, no obstacle could stop him. He listened to criticism but always had the final say. He was a judge of character. He sensed what each person was capable of and placed them in suitable positions. In short, Genghis Khan was both a state architect and a master of destruction. The combination of these contrasting qualities within him created the character blend that made him one of the greatest conquerors in history. These two contrasting characters of Genghis Khan give rise to the famous question that has been asked for hundreds of years: Was he a tyrant or a hero? Genghis Khan has been evaluated between two extremes by historians and societies. Some see him as a barbaric and cruel mass murderer. Others praise him as a heroic state founder and visionary leader. There is truth in both of these opposing perspectives. Genghis Khan's actions, on the one hand, led to great suffering, and on the other hand, they established a new world order. Those who describe him as a tyrant emphasize the excessive violence he employed during his conquests and the destruction he caused. Indeed, millions of people lost their lives as a result of Genghis Khan's campaigns. Some contemporary sources claim that one-third of the population of Iran and Central Asia perished due to the Mongols' annihilation policy. Genghis Khan consciously used fear as part of his strategy. By leaving no stone unturned in resisting cities, he intimidated others. In this regard, it is clear that he employed very cruel methods according to modern values. His armies carried out mass killings without distinction of women, children, or the elderly. For this reason, he has been a figure of hatred for centuries, especially in the eyes of the cultures that were his victims. In Arab and Persian historiography, expressions like "the accursed son of Genghis" were used even for his grandchildren, and he himself was referred to as the wrath of God. The Russians, calling him Tatar, described him as the cruel head of the Tatar yoke, while in the Middle East, he was depicted with the image of a barbarian who destroyed civilizations. From this perspective, Genghis Khan is one of the bloodiest conquerors in human history, perhaps even the bloodiest. On the other hand, there is an approach that sees him as a hero, which is particularly adopted by the Mongols and some world historians. According to this perspective, Genghis Khan was not a barbarian but, on the contrary, a ruler who established order and dispensed justice. For Mongol national identity, he is an undisputed hero. He is the ancestor, unifier, and source of pride for the nation. The Mongols emphasize that it was thanks to him that scattered tribes became a nation and emerged on the world stage. Furthermore, Genghis Khan initiated a period of peace and trade development across a vast geography. It is thanks to the empire established after the conquests that trade routes across Eurasia were secured, the interaction of various cultures increased, and the exchange of goods and ideas accelerated. During this period, travelers like Marco Polo could travel to the Far East, and it was possible to travel safely on the Silk Road. Some historians argue that the stagnation of the Middle Ages was broken under Mongol rule, laying the groundwork for the world's first global age. Moreover, some administrative innovations brought by Genghis Khan, such as freedom of belief, the postal system, common law, and meritocracy, are praised as foresight. Another argument for his heroism is his egalitarian and pragmatic rule. He is depicted as a leader who treated his people relatively well for his time, valuing talent regardless of wealth. For example, his practices, such as issuing a general amnesty to the people before his soldiers plundered and forgiving those who surrendered, or prohibiting damage to agriculture, are evaluated positively. Therefore, the answer to the question of whether Genghis Khan was a tyrant or a hero depends on the perspective of the answerer. The historical reality is that he employed extremely brutal methods and also made efforts to govern a great empire justly. The tyrannical aspect is evident in the terrible damage and massacres he caused. The heroic aspect emerges particularly from his role in the birth of the Mongol nation and the lasting impact he left on world history. The best view, I think, is neither to completely demonize him nor to completely deify him. He is one of the rare personalities who deserves both. Indeed, modern historians tend to evaluate him more balanced, portraying him as both the greatest conqueror and the greatest destroyer in human history. His legacy is dual-sided, evoking both fear and admiration. In conclusion, instead of categorizing Genghis Khan as strictly a tyrant or a hero, it is most reasonable to see him as a figure with both tyrannical and heroic aspects. What made Genghis Khan great and inscribed him in history? The elements that made Genghis Khan great and inscribed him in history were his extraordinary achievements and the deep traces he left behind. First and foremost, his military achievements and the empire he founded were on a colossal scale. Genghis Khan created a land empire of unprecedented size. The Mongol Empire, at the time of his death in 1227, stretched from the Pacific Ocean to the Caspian Sea. This was an area approximately twice the size of the Roman Empire and almost as large as the entire European continent. His conquests encompassed most of the world's known major centers of civilization. Up to the gates of China, Central Asia, Iran, the Caucasus, and Eastern Europe. Being the founder of the largest land empire in world history was enough to write his name in golden letters in the pages of history. His ability to bring such a vast geography under control in such a short time was something unseen since the time of Alexander the Great. For this reason, there has always been a disagreement among historians and researchers as to who is the greatest: Alexander the Great or Genghis Khan? You can decide for yourself by watching the Alexander the Great documentary I previously prepared. One of the things that made him great was his creation of the Mongol nation and identity. If it weren't for Genghis Khan, perhaps the Mongols would have remained a minor part of history. Instead, he united the Mongol people and turned them into an organized force. He created a centralized nation and army from scattered tribes. This achievement was accomplished not only through military force but also through social reforms. For example, distributing people from different tribes into mixed units based on a decimal system and instilling old tribal ties and the idea of a great Mongol nation was a revolutionary step. Thus, Genghis Khan was also great as a nation-builder. The national identity of modern Mongolia is directly symbolized by his person. Another factor that made Genghis Khan great was his military genius and innovative strategies. He changed the military paradigms of his time. The Mongols made a quantum leap in areas such as rapid cavalry campaigns, excellent archer units, feigned retreats, intelligence and espionage networks, and the adaptation of siege technologies. These new styles of warfare later inspired many commanders in Europe and Asia. It is known that even figures like Napoleon and Hitler spoke of the Mongols' winter campaigns and their ability to fight on two fronts. This military innovation also places him in the pantheon of the greatest commanders in history. This is why he is considered a conqueror genius, mentioned alongside names like Alexander the Great, Julius Caesar, Napoleon, and Mehmed the Conqueror. Finally, an important aspect that led to Genghis Khan being written into history was the abundance of legends and stories about his person, i.e., his cultural impact. Works like The Secret History of the Mongols narrate his life in an epic style and describe him as a legendary founder. Travelers like Marco Polo carried stories about him to Europe. Thus, he also found a place in popular memory. Over time, in many nations such as Russians, Arabs, Persians, and Indians, he became the main character of terrifying tales. This cultural trace ironically further solidified his greatness. His name circulated from mouth to mouth for centuries. He became the subject of curses and prophecies. Even contemporary genetic research has revealed that a Y-DNA haplogroup, believed to be descended from Genghis Khan, is found in millions of men, indicating that his genetic legacy is also immense. It is estimated that 0.5% to 5% of the world's male population may be descended from him. Such extraordinary information keeps his name constantly in the spotlight, both scientifically and popularly. In summary, what made Genghis Khan great was his escape from slavery to create a superpower, his establishment of one of the largest empires in history, his military and administrative genius that influenced centuries, and his legacy, both legendary and tangible. He had transformed from the small Temujin of yesterday into the Genghis Khan who transcended centuries today. The determination, genius, success, and also the brutality behind this transformation inscribed him in history in golden letters. The most important element that inscribed Genghis Khan in history and made him great was undoubtedly his military genius. Because he owed all his successes to this genius. The foundation of Genghis Khan's military success lay in his view of wars not just as a show of force but as a political tool. Each of his conquests was planned. He took into account both economic and geopolitical factors when choosing targets. For example, before attacking the Jin dynasty in northern China, he eliminated his western enemies, the Naimans and Tanguts, from the field. Thus, he secured his army's rear and eliminated the risk of a multi-front war. Genghis Khan destroyed the tribal-based, scattered Mongol warrior system and established a professional army based on meritocracy. He created units of 10, 100, 1,000, and 10,000 men. This structure ensured the perfect functioning of the chain of command, and communication was rapidly established between each level. Furthermore, commanders were selected not from nobles but from talented soldiers. This was a revolutionary approach at the time. The greatest strength of the Mongol army was its mobility. Soldiers had more than one horse. This allowed them to advance for days without their horses getting tired. The army could cover 120 to 160 km per day. This was an extraordinary speed at the time. Light armor, short bows, and highly maneuverable lines were the most deadly advantages of the Mongols. Genghis Khan skillfully used this mobility to cut off his enemies' communication lines and completely isolate the surrounding area before a siege. The Mongol army was not only skilled in warfare but also in creating fear. By completely destroying cities that did not surrender, he showed the cost of resistance to the entire region. However, he treated surrendered peoples justly, thus establishing psychological superiority. Through his spies and intelligence networks, he analyzed his enemies' fears and weaknesses. The Mongols conducted intelligence operations for months before campaigns. Spies disguised as merchants were sent, and roads, castles, and water sources were mapped in advance. Information flowed continuously between armies thanks to the postal and communication system called Yam. Although the Mongols were nomadic, they quickly adopted technologies from China and Central Asia. They incorporated Karakitan and Chinese engineers into their armies. They used catapults, trebuchets, siege towers, explosive bombs, and even gunpowder mixtures. Genghis Khan's war tactics were not fixed. They varied according to each enemy. Sometimes a part of his army would retreat in feigned panic, and when the enemy started to pursue, they would fall into an ambush. Sometimes, pincer movements and encirclement tactics would render the enemy immobile. He also used patient siege tactics in China and lightning attacks in Central Asia. This flexibility made his army the world's first modular fighting force. If any soldier in the army committed acts such as desertion, disobedience, or indiscipline, the death penalty was applied. But at the same time, Genghis Khan gave his loyal soldiers a fair share of the spoils. This further increased loyalty. The Mongol army could advance without needing large food depots. Each soldier was skilled in hunting, processing milk, and drying meat. They could campaign for months without logistical support. They mastered engineering by using inflatable bags and floating bridges for river crossings. Genghis Khan's military genius was not limited to winning battles. He institutionalized the art of war and transformed it into international strategy. The logistical system in the modern sense, the Yam system, was the ancestor of modern postal and intelligence networks, the divisional system was the basis of the brigade and battalion organization in today's armies, and the psychological warfare system was the precursor to modern propaganda and deterrence tactics. For thousands of years, legends, prophecies, or curses have always been associated with leaders who shaped history. Genghis Khan was the subject of many legends during his lifetime and afterward. First, we need to mention a prophecy related to his birth. According to The Secret History of the Mongols, when he was born, he held a piece of clotted blood in his palm. In Mongol belief, this meant that a great warrior would emerge from this child. Indeed, it was immediately considered a sign. The blood in the baby's hand was accepted as a harbinger of a leader who would take the destiny of the nation into his hands. Genghis Khan's soothsayers and shamans made various prophecies throughout his life. For example, Tep Tengri had predicted that Temüjin would rule over all the Mongol tribes. This was a kind of self-fulfilling prophecy, because what Tep Tengri said came true, and in 1206, Temüjin was indeed proclaimed Genghis Khan. Some Uyghur astrologers also looked at Genghis Khan's star chart and conveyed the prophecy that he would rule over four continents. Such predictions were used to legitimize his power. One of the prophecies was related to China. It is told that an astrologer named Ko Shujing predicted around 1214 that a great storm would hit China from the north, and this prophecy was recalled with the fall of Beijing the following year. Perhaps it was a prophecy made up later, but it was recorded. Curse legends related to Genghis Khan's death and tomb are much more common. Among the Mongols, there is a belief that finding Genghis Khan's tomb will bring misfortune. It is rumored that there is a curse that if Genghis Khan's tomb is opened, the world will be turned upside down. Perhaps a will circulated during the burial created this. It is said that Genghis Khan instructed that his tomb remain hidden forever. It is reported that he said that if it is ever found, disaster will befall the finder. We do not know how true these words are, but the existence of such a curse is strong in Mongol folk belief. Interesting events in history have also been attributed to curses. For example, the Nazi Germany's invasion of the Soviets and the outbreak of World War II immediately after Soviet archaeologists opened Timur's tomb in the 20th century are referred to as Timur's curse. Similarly, in 1941, the coincidence of the Barbarossa operation with a Soviet archaeological team's search for Genghis Khan's possible tomb was interpreted by the Mongols as a curse from Genghis Khan's disturbed spirit. It is even rumored that Mongol priests wrote a letter to Stalin saying, "Do not search for the tomb, you will draw the curse upon yourselves." This may be a legend, but the Mongols took it seriously and stopped the excavations. Another event associated with Genghis Khan's curse involved accidents and deaths during some excavation attempts in the 2000s. It was rumored that two researchers from a French team died mysteriously of illness while conducting unauthorized research in Burhan Khaldun, Mongolia, in the early 2000s. This immediately turned into a curse story. It was said that the curse of the tomb struck them. In reality, the cause of these deaths could have been infection or altitude sickness, but the people attributed them to a curse. Perhaps the most concrete text regarding prophecies and curses is the prophecy of the Bikitan sorceress recorded in Chinese sources. It is recorded that in 1219, the Bikitan sorceress said, "If you campaign to the west, you will destroy a great empire, but you will also lose one of your own lineage." Indeed, Genghis Khan destroyed the Khwarazmians, but upon his return, he received news of the death of his eldest son, Jochi. This was considered a fulfilled prophecy.

What kind of empire did Genghis Khan leave behind after his death? Who succeeded to the throne, and why did the empire divide? When Genghis Khan died, he left behind one of the largest empires in history. The Mongol Empire. While he was alive, a vast area extending to the gates of most of China, all of Central Asia, the Iranian plateau, and Eastern Europe had been conquered. In the year of his death, 1227, the empire was still growing. For example, the Jin dynasty had not yet fully surrendered, but northern China had begun to come under Mongol administration. There were vanguard Mongol garrisons in the Caucasus and the Russian steppes. As Genghis Khan grew old, he wanted to divide his empire among his family before his death. According to his plan, after his death, his four sons would rule the empire separately. These sons were, from eldest to youngest, Jochi, Chagatai, Ogedai, and Tolui. His intention here was to divide his country among his four sons to prevent them from fighting among themselves for succession. However, one of them would be the Great Khan and manage the central administration. This concept of the Great Khan led to tension between the two eldest brothers, Jochi and Chagatai. Genghis Khan wanted his eldest son, Jochi, to speak first regarding succession. This actually meant that he wanted Jochi to be the Great Khan after his death. Chagatai, without giving Jochi a chance to speak, addressed his father, saying, "Are you suggesting succession to Jochi by telling him to speak?" He was practically challenging his father and older brother. Angered by this situation, Jochi grabbed his brother Chagatai by the collar, and they began to punch each other. Genghis Khan was not angry at his two sons fighting but was saddened. He spoke to them about the old days. He reminded them of the difficult times they had gone through to reach today and gave an emotional speech. He asked them to accept his words and clearly stated that he wanted Jochi to be the Great Khan. Chagatai then submitted to his father's command. But he still said these words: "Prey killed by mouth is not loaded onto a horse. The skin of prey cut by word is not flayed." This meant that Chagatai would remain loyal to his father's command until his father's death. As long as he lived, he would accept Jochi's legitimacy. But after he died, they would have to decide again who would be the Great Khan. Jochi and Chagatai later decided to resolve their dispute in a different way. Both agreed not to be the Great Khan and to leave this title to their third brother, Ogedai. Despite all the planning and decisions made, fate had written the death of his eldest son, Jochi, while Genghis Khan was still alive. According to some legends, this death was caused by the dispute between Jochi and Chagatai, and over time, Jochi's defiance of his father led to Genghis Khan himself carrying it out. It is reported that he wanted to secure the future of his country this way. Consequently, after Genghis Khan's death, Ogedai was determined as the Great Khan at the kurultai held in 1229. Although the other brothers received regional administrations, the empire continued to be ruled as a single entity under Ogedai's leadership and continued to expand for about 50 years. The largest land empire in history, stretching from Europe to Asia with 24 million square kilometers, was established. After 1260, the empire began to divide among Genghis Khan's sons and grandsons. The center of the empire was named the Chagatai Khanate after his son Chagatai. The lands in China to the east went to Kublai, the son of the youngest brother Tolui. It was known as the Kublai Khanate or the Yuan dynasty. The region of Anatolia and Iran passed to Hulagu, another son of Tolui. His state was named the Ilkhanate, derived from the combination of the titles Ulus and Khan. Eastern Europe and the north of the Caspian Sea were named the Golden Horde Khanate after Jochi's son Orda. However, the founder of the Golden Horde is considered to be his brother Batu Khan. Since the Golden Horde was a state inhabited entirely by Turks, it went down in history as one of the largest Turkic states. Therefore, the empire left behind by Genghis Khan first expanded rapidly and then, although divided into four parts, these states continued to shape world history for a long period. The main backbone of the state was the army. Tens of thousands of tents and horsemen were considered both the people and the army of the empire. That is, when Genghis Khan died, the empire did not even have a permanent capital. The army was almost where the state was. Nevertheless, it is told that the foundation of a palace was laid in Karakorum, and coins were minted in the name of Genghis Khan. Thus, a prototype capital existed. Genghis Khan also left behind a large population and a mosaic of various peoples. The Mongols were actually few in number. The majority of the empire's population consisted of the peoples of the conquered lands: Chinese, Persians, Turks, and other nations. This heterogeneous structure enriched the empire but also made its administration difficult. Genghis Khan used the administration of non-Mongols through their old local rulers to govern the peoples. For example, by taxing the collaborative court administration in China or local governors in Persia. This also led to a federal system of governance in the empire. In conclusion, Genghis Khan's life is an epic story extending from slavery to a world empire. The hardships he experienced in his childhood shaped his character, and under the ruthless laws of the steppe, he developed his leadership qualities and united the Mongol tribes. Thanks to his military genius and innovative management style, he changed the course of history. Although the price of his victories was heavy, he left behind a brand new world order. Civilizations that were disconnected met on the path he opened, and even though his empire disintegrated, his ideas and legend continued to live on. Some call him a cruel conqueror, others a great khan. But undoubtedly, Genghis Khan has forever secured his place among the greatest names in history. Knowing his story means recognizing humanity's creative as well as destructive potential. And perhaps for this reason, even after centuries, this legendary ruler of the Steppe will continue to be the subject of documentaries, novels, and research.

The most important element that inscribed Genghis Khan in history and made him great was undoubtedly his military genius. Because he owed all his successes to this genius. The foundation of Genghis Khan's military success lay in his view of wars not just as a show of force but as a political tool. Each of his conquests was planned. He took into account both economic and geopolitical factors when choosing targets. For example, before attacking the Jin dynasty in northern China, he eliminated his western enemies, the Naimans and Tanguts, from the field. Thus, he secured his army's rear and eliminated the risk of a multi-front war. Genghis Khan destroyed the tribal-based, scattered Mongol warrior system and established a professional army based on meritocracy. He created units of 10, 100, 1,000, and 10,000 men. This structure ensured the perfect functioning of the chain of command, and communication was rapidly established between each level. Furthermore, commanders were selected not from nobles but from talented soldiers. This was a revolutionary approach at the time. The greatest strength of the Mongol army was its mobility. Soldiers had more than one horse. This allowed them to advance for days without their horses getting tired. The army could cover 120 to 160 km per day. This was an extraordinary speed at the time. Light armor, short bows, and highly maneuverable lines were the most deadly advantages of the Mongols. Genghis Khan skillfully used this mobility to cut off his enemies' communication lines and completely isolate the surrounding area before a siege. The Mongol army was not only skilled in warfare but also in creating fear. By completely destroying cities that did not surrender, he showed the cost of resistance to the entire region. However, he treated surrendered peoples justly, thus establishing psychological superiority. Through his spies and intelligence networks, he analyzed his enemies' fears and weaknesses. The Mongols conducted intelligence operations for months before campaigns. Spies disguised as merchants were sent, and roads, castles, and water sources were mapped in advance. Information flowed continuously between armies thanks to the postal and communication system called Yam. Although the Mongols were nomadic, they quickly adopted technologies from China and Central Asia. They incorporated Karakitan and Chinese engineers into their armies. They used catapults, trebuchets, siege towers, explosive bombs, and even gunpowder mixtures. Genghis Khan's war tactics were not fixed. They varied according to each enemy. Sometimes a part of his army would retreat in feigned panic, and when the enemy started to pursue, they would fall into an ambush. Sometimes, pincer movements and encirclement tactics would render the enemy immobile. He also used patient siege tactics in China and lightning attacks in Central Asia. This flexibility made his army the world's first modular fighting force. If any soldier in the army committed acts such as desertion, disobedience, or indiscipline, the death penalty was applied. But at the same time, Genghis Khan gave his loyal soldiers a fair share of the spoils. This further increased loyalty. The Mongol army could advance without needing large food depots. Each soldier was skilled in hunting, processing milk, and drying meat. They could campaign for months without logistical support. They mastered engineering by using inflatable bags and floating bridges for river crossings. Genghis Khan's military genius was not limited to winning battles. He institutionalized the art of war and transformed it into international strategy. The logistical system in the modern sense, the Yam system, was the ancestor of modern postal and intelligence networks, the divisional system was the basis of the brigade and battalion organization in today's armies, and the psychological warfare system was the precursor to modern propaganda and deterrence tactics.

For thousands of years, legends, prophecies, or curses have always been associated with leaders who shaped history. Genghis Khan was the subject of many legends during his lifetime and afterward. First, we need to mention a prophecy related to his birth. According to The Secret History of the Mongols, when he was born, he held a piece of clotted blood in his palm. In Mongol belief, this meant that a great warrior would emerge from this child. Indeed, it was immediately considered a sign. The blood in the baby's hand was accepted as a harbinger of a leader who would take the destiny of the nation into his hands. Genghis Khan's soothsayers and shamans made various prophecies throughout his life. For example, Tep Tengri had predicted that Temüjin would rule over all the Mongol tribes. This was a kind of self-fulfilling prophecy, because what Tep Tengri said came true, and in 1206, Temüjin was indeed proclaimed Genghis Khan. Some Uyghur astrologers also looked at Genghis Khan's star chart and conveyed the prophecy that he would rule over four continents. Such predictions were used to legitimize his power. One of the prophecies was related to China. It is told that an astrologer named Ko Shujing predicted around 1214 that a great storm would hit China from the north, and this prophecy was recalled with the fall of Beijing the following year. Perhaps it was a prophecy made up later, but it was recorded. Curse legends related to Genghis Khan's death and tomb are much more common. Among the Mongols, there is a belief that finding Genghis Khan's tomb will bring misfortune. It is rumored that there is a curse that if Genghis Khan's tomb is opened, the world will be turned upside down. Perhaps a will circulated during the burial created this. It is said that Genghis Khan instructed that his tomb remain hidden forever. It is reported that he said that if it is ever found, disaster will befall the finder. We do not know how true these words are, but the existence of such a curse is strong in Mongol folk belief. Interesting events in history have also been attributed to curses. For example, the Nazi Germany's invasion of the Soviets and the outbreak of World War II immediately after Soviet archaeologists opened Timur's tomb in the 20th century are referred to as Timur's curse. Similarly, in 1941, the coincidence of the Barbarossa operation with a Soviet archaeological team's search for Genghis Khan's possible tomb was interpreted by the Mongols as a curse from Genghis Khan's disturbed spirit. It is even rumored that Mongol priests wrote a letter to Stalin saying, "Do not search for the tomb, you will draw the curse upon yourselves." This may be a legend, but the Mongols took it seriously and stopped the excavations. Another event associated with Genghis Khan's curse involved accidents and deaths during some excavation attempts in the 2000s. It was rumored that two researchers from a French team died mysteriously of illness while conducting unauthorized research in Burhan Khaldun, Mongolia, in the early 2000s. This immediately turned into a curse story. It was said that the curse of the tomb struck them. In reality, the cause of these deaths could have been infection or altitude sickness, but the people attributed them to a curse. Perhaps the most concrete text regarding prophecies and curses is the prophecy of the Bikitan sorceress recorded in Chinese sources. It is recorded that in 1219, the Bikitan sorceress said, "If you campaign to the west, you will destroy a great empire, but you will also lose one of your own lineage." Indeed, Genghis Khan destroyed the Khwarazmians, but upon his return, he received news of the death of his eldest son, Jochi. This was considered a fulfilled prophecy.

What kind of empire did Genghis Khan leave behind after his death? Who succeeded to the throne, and why did the empire divide? When Genghis Khan died, he left behind one of the largest empires in history. The Mongol Empire. While he was alive, a vast area extending to the gates of most of China, all of Central Asia, the Iranian plateau, and Eastern Europe had been conquered. In the year of his death, 1227, the empire was still growing. For example, the Jin dynasty had not yet fully surrendered, but northern China had begun to come under Mongol administration. There were vanguard Mongol garrisons in the Caucasus and the Russian steppes. As Genghis Khan grew old, he wanted to divide his empire among his family before his death. According to his plan, after his death, his four sons would rule the empire separately. These sons were, from eldest to youngest, Jochi, Chagatai, Ogedai, and Tolui. His intention here was to divide his country among his four sons to prevent them from fighting among themselves for succession. However, one of them would be the Great Khan and manage the central administration. This concept of the Great Khan led to tension between the two eldest brothers, Jochi and Chagatai. Genghis Khan wanted his eldest son, Jochi, to speak first regarding succession. This actually meant that he wanted Jochi to be the Great Khan after his death. Chagatai, without giving Jochi a chance to speak, addressed his father, saying, "Are you suggesting succession to Jochi by telling him to speak?" He was practically challenging his father and older brother. Angered by this situation, Jochi grabbed his brother Chagatai by the collar, and they began to punch each other. Genghis Khan was not angry at his two sons fighting but was saddened. He spoke to them about the old days. He reminded them of the difficult times they had gone through to reach today and gave an emotional speech. He asked them to accept his words and clearly stated that he wanted Jochi to be the Great Khan. Chagatai then submitted to his father's command. But he still said these words: "Prey killed by mouth is not loaded onto a horse. The skin of prey cut by word is not flayed." This meant that Chagatai would remain loyal to his father's command until his father's death. As long as he lived, he would accept Jochi's legitimacy. But after he died, they would have to decide again who would be the Great Khan. Jochi and Chagatai later decided to resolve their dispute in a different way. Both agreed not to be the Great Khan and to leave this title to their third brother, Ogedai. Despite all the planning and decisions made, fate had written the death of his eldest son, Jochi, while Genghis Khan was still alive. According to some legends, this death was caused by the dispute between Jochi and Chagatai, and over time, Jochi's defiance of his father led to Genghis Khan himself carrying it out. It is reported that he wanted to secure the future of his country this way. Consequently, after Genghis Khan's death, Ogedai was determined as the Great Khan at the kurultai held in 1229. Although the other brothers received regional administrations, the empire continued to be ruled as a single entity under Ogedai's leadership and continued to expand for about 50 years. The largest land empire in history, stretching from Europe to Asia with 24 million square kilometers, was established. After 1260, the empire began to divide among Genghis Khan's sons and grandsons. The center of the empire was named the Chagatai Khanate after his son Chagatai. The lands in China to the east went to Kublai, the son of the youngest brother Tolui. It was known as the Kublai Khanate or the Yuan dynasty. The region of Anatolia and Iran passed to Hulagu, another son of Tolui. His state was named the Ilkhanate, derived from the combination of the titles Ulus and Khan. Eastern Europe and the north of the Caspian Sea were named the Golden Horde Khanate after Jochi's son Orda. However, the founder of the Golden Horde is considered to be his brother Batu Khan. Since the Golden Horde was a state inhabited entirely by Turks, it went down in history as one of the largest Turkic states. Therefore, the empire left behind by Genghis Khan first expanded rapidly and then, although divided into four parts, these states continued to shape world history for a long period. The main backbone of the state was the army. Tens of thousands of tents and horsemen were considered both the people and the army of the empire. That is, when Genghis Khan died, the empire did not even have a permanent capital. The army was almost where the state was. Nevertheless, it is told that the foundation of a palace was laid in Karakorum, and coins were minted in the name of Genghis Khan. Thus, a prototype capital existed. Genghis Khan also left behind a large population and a mosaic of various peoples. The Mongols were actually few in number. The majority of the empire's population consisted of the peoples of the conquered lands: Chinese, Persians, Turks, and other nations. This heterogeneous structure enriched the empire but also made its administration difficult. Genghis Khan used the administration of non-Mongols through their old local rulers to govern the peoples. For example, by taxing the collaborative court administration in China or local governors in Persia. This also led to a federal system of governance in the empire. In conclusion, Genghis Khan's life is an epic story extending from slavery to a world empire. The hardships he experienced in his childhood shaped his character, and under the ruthless laws of the steppe, he developed his leadership qualities and united the Mongol tribes. Thanks to his military genius and innovative management style, he changed the course of history. Although the price of his victories was heavy, he left behind a brand new world order. Civilizations that were disconnected met on the path he opened, and even though his empire disintegrated, his ideas and legend continued to live on. Some call him a cruel conqueror, others a great khan. But undoubtedly, Genghis Khan has forever secured his place among the greatest names in history. Knowing his story means recognizing humanity's creative as well as destructive potential. And perhaps for this reason, even after centuries, this legendary ruler of the Steppe will continue to be the subject of documentaries, novels, and research.