Transcription
Yes, so what if I'm paper? But unlike you, I was plastered all over the city, and you stuck to the couch yourself. Alright, in one of the frames, look for a promo code for a walk. Tripster. Excursions from local guides. >> Friends, hello. In early 1974, historian-Egyptologist Dr. Abdel Kader Selim was conducting a routine annual inspection of the exhibits at the Cairo Museum. Well, these are not exactly exhibits from the Cairo Museum, but, in general, some of them are similar. Everything was going as usual until he reached the mummy of Ramesses II. Then the doctor realized that something was wrong with the pharaoh. Well, what was wrong? Upon closer inspection, he saw some strange spots on the king's mummy. Ramesses' hair had become somewhat brittle, and dust had accumulated in his glass sarcophagus. So, a scientific council was urgently convened. Analyses were taken from the pharaoh's mummy, so to speak, and it became clear that mold had settled in it. The mummy needed to be urgently evacuated to specialists in Paris and saved. And then a completely unforeseen situation arose. The Egyptian authorities banned the transportation of the pharaoh. National pride did not allow the Egyptians to process the body of the deceased pharaoh simply as luggage. The French side said: "Listen, well, these are human remains, in fact, human. We won't accept this without documents." As a result, the deceased pharaoh was given a lot of paperwork, and at Paris airport, the mummy was met according to the protocol for receiving international politicians with a military orchestra and a regiment of guards. This was the only such case in history. Well, as you understand, we will talk about pharaohs today. In general, the pharaohs of ancient Egypt dreamed that their names would live on for centuries. And many succeeded. For example, we remember Khufu or Nefertiti thousands of years after their death. But what other pharaohs have preserved their names in history? What from what the pharaohs did do we still remember? In general, how did they live, whom did they love, what did they die from? And how did it happen that the most famous pharaoh in history is Tutankhamun, who, frankly speaking, did nothing useful for the states at all. Let's talk about this today. But first, let's discuss the context a bit, so to speak. Today, North Africa, where Egypt is located, is mostly desert. But it wasn't always like that. Once it was a super fertile grassy plain where antelopes grazed. The climate gradually changed, and the savanna was scorched by the sun and turned into sand. Only along the banks of the great river Nile did fertile lands remain, where people continued to practice agriculture, that is, to grow grain. Once a year, the Nile floods, from mid-June to October the river overflows its banks and floods the entire valley. This is why Herodotus called Egypt the gift of the Nile. These natural cycles were reflected in the worldview of the Egyptians themselves. And here lies the answer to an important question. Why were the pharaohs so powerful? But first, let's figure it out. Ancient Egypt is a complex society, well, for its time. Very technological, much like Japan today. The Egyptians believed that life is good as long as there is, so to speak, a general cosmic order. This order was represented by a goddess named Ma'at. The constellations move by her will, the seasons change. Everything goes correctly, without haste, as they say now in trendy videos, in its own way. Accordingly, people must observe this order. They must cultivate the land on time, bring offerings to the gods, and fulfill only those roles that are prescribed to them from birth. That is, there was no rapid social mobility in ancient Egypt. If you were born a peasant, you would most likely remain a peasant your whole life. And your children would be peasants, and your grandchildren would be peasants. And peasants are 90% of the population. If you were born into a pharaoh's family, well, most likely, of course, you would be a pharaoh. And the pharaoh also has a job. It's not cultivating the garden beds, it's a serious matter. He needs to maintain cosmic balance. The Egyptians believed that the life of the entire country literally depended on the pharaoh's actions. Not even in a political sense, but in a mystical one. First of all, it's communication with the gods. If the king performs the rituals correctly, then the sun rises every day. The Nile floods on time and as it should, that is, not too much. The Egyptians believed that the first pharaoh was Osiris. He is the god of agriculture, killed by his brother and resurrected by his wife Isis. Therefore, every pharaoh had sacred status. At the moment of coronation, the divine spirit of Osiris himself descended into his body, and the pharaoh became a true living god among people. And this is the whole point of the history of the pharaohs. This explains everything. A pharaoh did not necessarily have to be an egocentric tyrant, as often happened in other Eastern despotisms, in other Eastern monarchies. His close associates could argue with him. But in the Achaemenid Iran, for arguments, they would immediately cut off not just a tongue, but a head. Criticizing pharaohs was generally considered normal. For example, Pharaoh Akhenaten was criticized for disrespecting the gods, and Khufu for ruining the country for his pyramid. Another question is that they criticized them, of course, after the fact, that is, after the change of power. And also, an aging pharaoh had to prove his right to the throne. This unusual ritual was called the Heb-Sed. An elderly king had to run a ritual marathon. This is about 4 km. If he couldn't do it, it meant he was too decrepit. And questions arose: how can such an old man rule a state? Well, I think something was taken from a lion pride, right, because there the young lion expels the old one. Of course, the old lion doesn't run a marathon, but he has to defend his right to lead the pride in this fight. The old lion will withstand the first fight, the second, probably, too, and then in a year there will be a third, and the young lion will win. So all this, of course, is from the animal world. For many centuries, Egypt has attracted not only researchers. Remember the famous film "The Mummy." Hercule Poirot in Agatha Christie's work "Death on the Nile." Poems by Gumilyov. Essays by Alexandre Dumas. Today, Egypt is one of the most popular travel destinations. Tourists go there not only to visit the pyramids but also the Grand Egyptian Museum in Giza. The rapidly growing resort of El Alamein or, for example, the Lost Golden City. And no matter how you look at it, you can't do without communication on any trip. For the trip to be not only interesting but also comfortable, you need internet, calls, and online services. And everyone needs them in different amounts. Therefore, MTS offers several roaming modes for any travel style. With the free Lite mode, you get access to maps, online translators, banking apps, and unlimited outgoing calls to MTS numbers. If you need more internet and calls to other numbers while roaming, the Comfort mode is for you, costing only 1,000 rubles per month. And for those who are used to being constantly connected, I recommend choosing the Maximum mode. In it, in addition to the listed services, you will have even more gigabytes and minutes. And all this for 3,500 rubles. Travel the world the way you want. MTS has roaming for different travel styles. All details are in the link in the description. Undoubtedly, the pharaohs created dynasties. Dynasties formed great eras, which we now call kingdoms. There were several dynasties in the history of Egypt. The Early Dynastic Period, the Old Kingdom, the Middle Kingdom, and the New Kingdom. And between them were dark ages, chaos, and wars. And the very first era of the Early Dynasties began 2,500 years BC. With the reign of a pharaoh named Narmer. Scholars argue whether he actually existed. Maybe he didn't. We learned about him like this. In 1897, a British archaeological expedition arrived in Hierakonpolis. This is the lost capital of the Early Dynasties in the desert. And there, in the temple of Horus, in a cache, they found a small palette. What is a palette? It's a thing for grinding paints. The outer sides of the palette were decorated with a mysterious relief. Strange animals, like giraffes, intertwine and coil around each other. And next to it is another drawing. A certain king in the crown of Upper Egypt tramples and defeats enemies, and next to him is the same king, but already in the crown of Lower Egypt. That is, the palette tells that there was such a pharaoh who united the country. Well, the find was immediately brought to the Cairo Museum, and there they found the name of this king, Narmer, on it. Here was the problem. So far, this name has never appeared in Egyptian sources, although the ancient Egyptians carefully preserved the names of their pharaohs. For example, in the temple at Abydos, there is a whole wall with the names of pharaohs. And there the history begins with a king named Menes. Herodotus, whom we now call the father of history, also wrote about the pharaoh Menes. And Herodotus himself visited Egypt and had firsthand information. Well, not firsthand, but still, it's oral traditions. Someone told him, some old woman told him. And the question arises, did the archaeologists make a mistake? Most likely not. Today, in Egyptology, there is a version that Narmer and Menes are two names of the same pharaoh. The king had several names. A personal name given at birth. A second name, a throne name, which the pharaoh received at coronation. There is another version. According to it, Narmer was the last king of pre-dynastic Egypt. That is, when there were no dynasties yet. Menes is his successor with the throne name Aha. So that's the story. But what do we know for sure? This Narmer united the two Egyptian states. He invented the famous double crown, the Pschent. Here's how it looks. Its red part symbolizes Lower Egypt, and the white part symbolizes Upper Egypt. And a sacred cobra sits on the front of the crown. It protects the pharaoh. This cobra. Narmer's palette has another important feature. On it, the pharaoh is depicted for the first time with all the mandatory attributes of power. First. A bull's tail tied at the back. This is the oldest symbol of physical strength and fertility. After Narmer, pharaohs wore a bull's tail until the end of the Roman era. Second is a false beard. It's hot in Egypt, so no one wore beards, everyone shaved clean. An artificial beard is a sign of divine status. Future pharaohs attached the artificial beard with thin gold chains or leather straps. On many statues, these ties are clearly depicted. By the way, the Egyptians themselves did not call their king a pharaoh. The word pharaoh comes from the Egyptian word meaning "great house" or "great palace." In the Old and Middle Kingdoms, it was a technical term for the administration, or the palace building itself. It's like today in the news they write, "The Kremlin decided" or "The White House announced." The ruler himself was called very modestly, simply "good god," "servant," or "lord." The word pharaoh began to be used as a title only during the New Kingdom period. What do we know about Narmer from the sources? He lived a long life, most likely about 65 years. According to legend, the first king of United Egypt was trampled by a hippopotamus. A rather terrible death, I think. The pharaoh was buried in a modest, rather underground tomb. The Egyptians did not build pyramids yet. And the first pyramid and the first pharaoh who built a pyramid for himself was called Djoser. And he also, by the way, prevented a catastrophe that almost destroyed the state. And what happened was this. As we remember, life in ancient Egypt depends on the floods of the Nile. For the Nile to flood correctly, the pharaoh performs a ritual every year. He sails to the island of Elephantine and makes an offering to the god of the flood. What does he offer him? Geese, flowers, fruits. But in the fifteenth year of Djoser's reign, the Nile began to act up, flooding weakly, and by the eighteenth year, it had such a negligible flood that famine gripped the country. The pharaoh, in despair, goes to the temple of the river god. The god was called Khnum. And there the priests explain to the pharaoh: "Well, Pharaoh, there is no flood and there will be no flood, because the god has stood in the way of the river. He is angry because the pharaoh has become arrogant. The temple is given few offerings, and the priests get nothing at all." Well, Djoser, so to speak, understood the hint. He immediately provided money for the temple's repair, and gifted the priests land directly opposite Elephantine. And, you know, it worked. The next year, the river flooded abundantly, and the famine ended. Djoser ruled for many years. He fought against the peoples of Sinai. He defended Egypt from raids by nomads and robbers. By the way, about names. The second name, the throne name, sounds like "Nekhert," which means "divine in body" or "incarnate deity." That's how much the Egyptians valued their ruler. Before Djoser, pharaohs were buried in the ground like ordinary people, like ordinary Egyptians. But he reasonably thought: "Listen, if I am a deity, then I cannot lie in the ground after death, I am not human." And so he decided to build a pyramid. It's as if it was his personal staircase to heaven. Djoser believed that after death his divine soul would leave the burial chamber and ascend the steps to the other gods. And construction began. So, for the construction, he hired an architect named Imhotep. He was a high-ranking official, a philosopher, and an astrologer. Egyptian texts call him the first after the king. He is also called a priest of the god Ra. Well, it's clear that such a gifted person builds not just a building, he builds a physical embodiment of the world order. Ma'at. The architecture of the place where we live always has a special meaning. And life in an environment of historical buildings opens up a colossal diversity of opinions, views, and peculiarities of different eras. From this point of view, the new S5 project from MR, which will soon appear near Petrovsky Park, just a 5-minute walk from the Dynamo metro station, is no exception. Here, in a monument of 16th-century neo-Gothic architecture, Art Deco mansions from the late thirties will meet modern architecture, which will be organically integrated into the historical context. S5 is a project for those who value status, comfort, and a conscious lifestyle. The complex consists of six buildings, from four-story club houses to skyscrapers up to 48 floors high, designed using advanced engineering solutions. Within walking distance are Petrovsky Park, Timiryazevsky Forest Park, and other green areas, as well as sports infrastructure near Dynamo and CSKA metro stations. But what truly sets S5 apart is its courtyard park, isolated from urban noise, with a decorative pond, a paddle tennis court, and relaxation areas. The club spaces of S5 form an ecosystem accessible only to the complex's residents: a gym, dance and yoga studios, a children's playroom, a rooftop art space, and a multifunctional area for private events. Everything is designed for comfort. Smart home technology allows you to control climate and lighting in common areas, order taxis, book tables, and coordinate deliveries. The project offers over 600 unique layout solutions. Apartments and penthouses for any life scenario. And, of course, stunning panoramic views of Petrovsky Park, the Moscow City complex, and the historical city center. Commissioning is scheduled for the first quarter of 2030. Follow the link in the description to learn more about the S5 project. Construction begins with the erection of a mastaba, which is the traditional rectangular tomb. Then steps were built on top of it. They were laid from natural stone. Such blocks are small, "100 kg" in quotes. And people carried them, lifted them, detached them from the rock using simple levers. Djoser's pyramid turned out to be not small, but not large either, 62 meters high. Its main part is the burial chamber. The sarcophagus with the pharaoh's body was lowered there, and then it was covered with a huge stone. In addition to this chamber, galleries for gifts were built in the pyramid. The Egyptians believed that after death the pharaoh would be reborn. What does this mean? That for the pharaoh to be reborn, he would need to eat, he would need something to wear, he would need servants, incense, food, dishes. All this was put in literally to the brim. The gallery was filled with all this. Unfortunately, the interior decoration of Djoser's pyramid has not survived to this day. Like many other pyramids, it was looted in ancient times. What is the most famous pyramid? The Pyramid of Khufu. Who is Khufu? He is a pharaoh, the son of a pharaoh, from the Old Kingdom. His father was named Sneferu. Khufu is his personal name, his throne name is Khnum-Khufu, meaning "Khnum protects me." For brevity, historians simply call him Khufu. His father successfully fought against Nubia and brought a lot of gold, precious stones, and livestock from his campaigns. He also finally annexed Sinai to Egypt, so his son inherited a very economically developed state. But we know little about Khufu himself, what kind of person he was, how he ruled. Surprisingly, few records remain. Even his portrait is only one. It's a bone statuette 7.5 cm in size. That is, surprisingly little for a king who built the Great Pyramid. Well, it must be said that half a century later, Herodotus, of course, spoiled Khufu's image. He wrote that the king allegedly ruined the country, forced everyone to work on his pyramid, and even gave his own daughter to a brothel to raise more money for construction. This sounds, of course, implausible, but even if we are completely cynical people, if you have no money in your country, and you even gave your daughter to a brothel, who would buy her if no one has money? Come on, that's nonsense. Well, Herodotus was told by some Egyptian old woman. Herodotus wrote down everything from the words of this Egyptian old woman. He believed that after Khufu's death, what would now be called an "abolition" occurred. That is, the pharaohs tried to abolish, to forget him. And it must be said that the Egyptians often did this. For example, whom did they abolish? What do we know? They abolished Queen Hatshepsut. They abolished Pharaoh Akhenaten. We will talk about this later. One way or another, Khufu's main achievement is the huge pyramid. Why did the ruler decide to make such a large one? The logic is quite simple. Well, as we have already figured out, it is a symbolic staircase to heaven for the pharaoh's soul. And the higher this staircase, the closer, accordingly, to the clouds, so as to definitely reach the world of the gods. The height of the Pyramid of Khufu today is almost 140 meters. And this is with a destroyed summit, meaning it was even higher in ancient times. Interesting fact. The faces of the pyramid are oriented exactly to the cardinal directions. And, apparently, the architect knew geography well and certainly knew about the arrangement of stars, because there was no complex then, of course. How was this pyramid built? A well-known stereotype has developed in culture. The pyramids were built by slaves. Overseers beat them with whips, beat them to death. But in reality, this is not the case. The pharaoh's tomb is not his personal whim. It's not an official who said, "I'll build myself a three-story mansion with five more floors underground." The pyramid is a matter of state importance. And working on such a construction site is very patriotic. And the ancient Egyptians were fine with patriotism. So, people often worked on construction sites in their free time for free. Well, they received some benefits for it. For example, they were exempted from all taxes. But let's talk about the most interesting part. How did ancient people manage to build this huge structure? Friends, a few words about the new issue of "Chitvo." We have dedicated it to a topic that, in our opinion, is very summery. Let's talk about dreams. We have figured out when humans started dreaming, how dreams have changed in different eras, and where they can lead. We recalled and compared the American and Soviet dreams. We talked about space, the ultimate dream for humanity. And we even recorded a report from an electric train. We found out what people who are going in the wrong direction are dreaming about. And this time we have two covers. On one of them is the singer Feduk. It so happened that we communicated with Fyodor exactly 5 years ago. A lot has happened with him during this time. He has written several new hits, gotten married, become a father. And we talked about how all these events have changed him. And in general, what does a person dream about who has already written a huge hit? On the other cover is Matvey Safonov, the goalkeeper of the French club PSG Paris Saint-Germain. The first Russian to win the Champions League twice in a row. We talked about his childhood, his current life, and Paris. And he also told me how to save four penalties in a row. You can pre-order the issue on Ozon via the link in the profile description. Well, this time we will not analyze theories about aliens. We have already covered this, you know all this without us. We had an episode about pyramids. I talked about it there. Archaeological facts. Huge granite blocks weighing 10-20 tons were delivered to the Giza plateau by the Nile. They were brought from the city of Aswan. This is in the south. Barges were specially built for this. The blocks were transported strictly during the flood, when the water level rose and the vessels easily passed through rapids and shallows. In addition, in the Giza area, a network of artificial canals was dug specifically for construction, so that barges with stone could sail almost to the foot of the plateau. Well, it's clear why, right, to drag granite boulders less on land. The blocks were dragged to the pyramid by rolling, that is, logs were placed under them. Usually, everyone is interested in how it was possible to lift such giants to a height of 140 meters. And the answer is this: the largest blocks were used for the lower and middle parts of the pyramid. They were dragged up by sandy ramps. The upper part was made of smaller stones, weighing on average about 500 kg. They were lifted using a system of levers. I said we'll do without aliens, but in reality, even without flying saucers, there is a lot of mystery in the Pyramid of Khufu. Scientists still don't understand why there is a huge empty chamber in it. The main entrance to the pyramid is located on the north side at a height of about 15 meters. A corridor goes down from it and ends in an empty chamber. What is it for? There is an opinion that it is a backup burial chamber. In case the pharaoh dies earlier, before the upper chambers are completed. Approximately 30 meters from the entrance, another corridor branches off upwards. It leads to the main burial chambers. To prevent anyone from disturbing the pharaoh, after burial, it was hermetically sealed with three granite blocks weighing a total of under 50 tons. But this did not help, of course. Already in the first century AD, the Arab caliph Al-Mamun, nephew of the famous Harun al-Rashid, a hero of "One Thousand and One Nights," decided to find the treasures of the ancient pharaohs. And so, on his orders, workers cut a tunnel directly into the pyramid's masonry. True, upon reaching the king's chamber, the Caliph found only an empty granite sarcophagus without a lid. There was no gold or precious stones there anymore. The pyramid had already been robbed before him. And the tunnel dug is now used to lead tourists. As we have already discussed, in the history of the pharaohs, there is a division into dynasties and kingdoms. This began with an Egyptian historian named Manetho. He lived in the 2nd century BC in the city of Heliopolis and was a priest of the god Ra. He had access to sacred texts. And so Manetho decided to record the history of Egypt. He divided it into 30 dynasties. And then European historians noticed that periods of dynastic prosperity alternated with periods of decline, anarchy, and even chaos. And, accordingly, they named these periods in an understandable way: the Old Kingdom, the Middle Kingdom, and the New Kingdom. We have reached the era of the Old Kingdom, from Pharaoh Djoser to the end of the Sixth Dynasty. The last king of this kingdom was Pepi. Pepi II. After him, the sole power of the pharaoh in Egypt collapsed, and the so-called First Intermediate Period began. The unified state broke up into many small regions called nomes. Their rulers did not obey the center. They formed their own armies and began to fight each other. The Nile looked at all this and said, "I'll flood weakly." And for many years there was famine in the country. Well, we have already gone through all these stories. In Ancient Rome and in China, there were periods when civil strife began. The same thing began in Egypt. And this lasted for about a century and a half, until King Mentuhotep II defeated his opponents and proclaimed a new capital, Thebes. And he and his descendants are considered the Eleventh Dynasty. A fair question may arise: why did the Old Kingdom end with the Sixth Dynasty, and then the Eleventh appeared immediately, and where are the other five? The fact is that none of these five formed their own kingdom. And in general, their rulers were so weak that they changed constantly. Therefore, historiography, so to speak, does not take them into account. The Middle Kingdom begins. Mentuhotep is succeeded by his son, then his grandson, and so on, and so on. Well, after about 140 years, another pharaoh dies. He dies childless, leaving no heir. The vizier, that is, the ruler's advisor, named Amenemhet, becomes pharaoh. And he becomes Amenemhet I. The Twelfth Dynasty begins. The most outstanding king of this dynasty is Senusret II. He is the main pharaoh of the Middle Kingdom. Contemporaries did not skimp on praise at all. "A star that illuminates both lands," "lord of the universe." Well, and it must be said that he deserved both epithets, in general. Indeed, Senusret was a very active ruler. He tried his best so that, God forbid, famine and chaos of the intermediate period would not return. First, he put the treasury in order. Everything is counted, everything is described, every expense is strictly documented. Who took funds for what, how effectively the money was spent, whether it was embezzled, and so on. Second, the pharaoh carries out an administrative reform. He relocates all high-ranking officials to the capital, because they need to be watched closely, and here they are all under control. It's easier to monitor them so that they don't take bribes or exceed their authority. He builds houses for them and even builds common tombs. That is, literally, you will be together until death do you part. Even when you are parted, you will be together. The pharaoh strengthens the borders. He builds a network of fortresses in the oases. And now in Thebes, the capital, they always know what is happening, for example, in the west, on the border, along which nomads constantly roam. Finally, the pharaoh goes on a campaign to crush the contemptible land of Kush. These are the southern regions of Nubia. Well, in general, the first to attack Nubia was Pharaoh Sneferu, Khufu's father. And since then, the Egyptians have regularly plundered the murderers. A surprisingly rich country, it seems. But Senusret was the first to conquer the region and make it part of Egypt. From Nubia, Thebes brought gold, ivory, and precious wood. There are different types of rare trees, which were sometimes more valuable than gold. In addition, to ensure the safety of trade caravans, Senusret built the first fortresses in the history of Egypt, and in
Every fortress is garrisoned by a permanent garrison. That is, now no one will pass into the country of Egypt unnoticed. That Senusret II was a serious man is evident from the surviving portraits. His statue was made in large quantities, and, as is customary, was sent to all corners of the empire, along with a very clear message. The pharaoh is strong and watches over all you serfs with both eyes. Well, look at how he looks. From the statue, a man with a strong-willed face, a powerful jaw, and narrowed eyes looks at us. And it is quite possible to assume that he really looked like that. And the sculptor left him large ears, that is, he did not strive to idealize the image of the king, as the pharaoh himself would say about himself, and these sayings will be inscribed on the border stelae. I am the king who speaks words and performs deeds. What my heart has conceived, I accomplish. But the heirs of great rulers, of course, rarely manage to reach the same heights. Well, therefore, all dynasties naturally weaken gradually. You have seen many episodes about different dynasties on our channel. This was the case from the Twelfth Dynasty. Already the son of Senusret II is handing over the throne to a certain Amenemhat IV. Whether he is a son, or a grandson, or a person not of royal blood at all, we do not know for sure. He reigns for a short time, dies, leaving no sons. Thus, the title of pharaoh passes to a woman for the first time in Egyptian history, who is called Nefrusobek and who was, most likely, the sister of the last pharaoh. How, at this moment, you will ask me, is a woman on the throne perceived? Well, this is an obvious violation of the cosmic order. It smells of turmoil, that is, a transitional period. Why do we think so? In calm times, the pharaoh, with strong supreme power, rules the country for 20, for 30 years, that is, his entire life. And in a transitional period, chaos begins. Each pharaoh rules for two to three, well, a maximum of 4 years. Well, this is not a pharaoh, right? This is some kind of temporary ruler. Well, and then it's clear, when there is no strong central power, regional bosses gain strength, and conflicts begin between them. We can beautifully call them warlords, right? Upper Egypt breaks away. In Lower Egypt, the city of Avaris rises. This is a Semitic settlement at all. At some point, the city says that, you know, we need independence. And so, against the backdrop of all this, the peoples of Hyksos, that is, literally rulers of foreign lands, come to the lands of Egypt, that is, they invade. They are often called Hyksos. These Hyksos begin, forgive me for the expression, to settle somewhere, to fight for territory somewhere, and over time they even establish their own dynasty of pharaohs. Time passes, and it turns out as it happened at some point with the Mongols and the Chinese. The Egyptians master the technologies of foreigners, and then we don't know whether they assimilated them or drove them out of their territory. In general, this confrontation continues for several centuries, several generations, until finally Pharaoh Ahmose I captures the Hyksos capital. That very Avaris. The foreigners flee to Palestine, and Ahmose pursued them until they completely lost the desire to return. Returning home, Ahmose will discover administrative chaos. Yes, according to another version, they did not flee anywhere, these Hyksos, but simply, well, at some point they were assimilated. Well, it doesn't matter, let's trust the legend. Ahmose returned and said: "Listen, the country is in complete disarray, the wild nineties. Taxes are not coming in. The canals, look, are overgrown with silt. And the local rulers in the provinces, they live like pharaohs." And the king begins to build a centralized government. First of all, he appoints his people to key positions. He restores the canal system, because without canals, there is no water. No water, no grain. No grain, hunger. He resumes large-scale construction. There is no money in the country, and this is an expensive pleasure. But in Egypt, construction is a symbol of good times. This will be understood much later. How many centuries does humanity need to learn? This is the Great Depression. In America, they will only understand that to get out of the depression, you need to build something. If the pharaoh builds a temple, it means the gods are pleased, it means chaos has receded, and life in general is improving. Therefore, Ahmose begins to restore the sanctuary. Thus, he shows: "My friends, the transitional period is over. A strong ruler has appeared in the country. A new estate is also formed under him. Surprisingly, it did not exist before. The estate of professional soldiers. It used to be like this: the same people plowed the land, and when war came, they took up swords, spears, sticks instead of plows and went to war. Under Ahmose, people appear for whom war is a career. For valor, the ruler generously distributes gold and land. Thus, the foundation is laid, if you allow me, of this new nobility. The foundation of military power, with the help of which Egypt will later dictate terms to the entire ancient East. Ahmose was the first to leave life, having revived the empire. And the golden age began. The Eighteenth Dynasty of the New Kingdom. The era of the most beautiful temples and the richest tombs. Well, I dare to assume, in the history of mankind. As we have already discussed, by the standards of Ancient Egypt, a woman on the throne is a catastrophe, a violation of the cosmic order. But, you know, for every rule, there is an exception. For example, we will now talk about Hatshepsut. She is the only daughter of Thutmose I. In general, the history of Ancient Egypt knows several queens, mainly in the Old and Middle Kingdoms. They ruled at the end of epochs, precisely in these periods of crisis, they ruled for a short time. But Hatshepsut came to power when Egypt was a rich and strong state. And she ruled for more than 20 years. This is truly a unique case in history. She was the only child of the pharaoh and his chief wife Ahmose. It should be clarified here that, like all normal Eastern rulers of antiquity, the pharaohs of Egypt, as you understand, had several wives. But only the children of the chief wife were considered heirs to the throne. She was also the Great Royal Wife. Children from other wives were backups. Well, in case the heir dies in infancy, something happens to him. We have backup heirs. Thutmose I and Ahmose had two daughters. The younger died in infancy, and the elder, Hatshepsut, grew up smart, healthy, and agile. According to the laws of the state, she could not become pharaoh. When her father died, she was urgently married off to her half-brother. The young husband took a name, he became known as Thutmose II. He became pharaoh, and the young wife became the Great Royal Wife. The relationship between the spouses was cool. At the very beginning of their marriage, Hatshepsut gave birth to a daughter and said: "My dear, thank you very much, our relationship is over." However, one of the concubines gave the pharaoh a son. And this boy, named Thutmose, all the original ones were also pharaohs, the third pharaoh hoped to pass the throne to, but did not manage to. When the pharaoh, when he died, Thutmose II, the son was only 12 years old. By tradition, he was, of course, named the new pharaoh, and Hatshepsut became regent for him. Approximately a year and a half later, the priests of the god Amun staged a coup d'état. Right during the annual ceremony in the temple. The priests were carrying the statue of the god Amun. Not Amon, but Amun. Different things. And suddenly they knelt down right near the queen. The oracle declared that this was the will of God. God wishes that Hatshepsut rule the country. And the underage Thutmose was immediately relieved of his position. And the title passed to the queen. This had never happened before in the history of Egypt. But everything can be explained. Well, besides the will of the gods, let's still be normal people, we understand that this was all made up. Hatshepsut had been the chief priestess for many years where? In the temple of Amun. And, of course, she had excellent connections among the priestly cluster, among the caste of priests. Most likely, she simply bribed them. The scandal was grand, and to provoke the people less, the female pharaoh began to look like a man. She wore a double crown, a false beard, a bull's tail. In later depictions, her figure is even masculine. Hatshepsut restored the country after the invasion of the Hyksos. She sent an expedition, and we don't even know where to, to the mysterious land of Punt. But now it is believed that this is the region of modern Somalia and Eritrea. In fact, we don't understand if this is so. The task was to explore the trade route and bring everything possible from the region: gold, ivory, and most importantly, myrrh trees in pots. Myrrh was highly valued in Egypt, but it did not grow there. And these trees were brought, planted, and over time the queen developed a whole myrrh garden. The trees retained moisture in the soil and provided shade. That is, what is this? In principle, the first ecological reform. Hatshepsut also built a lot, more than any other pharaoh. Well, except for her husband. He is also a construction champion among pharaohs. In the city of Karnak, the Queen erected four obelisks, several religious buildings. In Nubia, she built a temple to the god Horus, but her main creation is the temple complex dedicated to Amun in Deir el-Bahari. In the time of Hatshepsut, it was called Djeser-Djeseru, meaning the holiest of the holy. From the reliefs on the walls of this temple, one can learn everything about Queen Hatshepsut. There are scenes of theogamy, that is, the divine union of the god Amun with Hatshepsut's mother. There is a story about how Amun compels the priests to lower his statue next to the future queen. And there is even a relief on which the queen, in pharaonic attire, performs the ritual Heb-Sed race. Remember, right? Marathon? To show that she is still strong and capable of ruling the country. In addition, Hatshepsut glorifies the goddess Hathor in the temple. In general, male pharaohs considered Osiris their patron. But a woman needs her own goddess. And Hatshepsut chooses Hathor. She is the goddess of love, the goddess of prosperity, the goddess of everything sublime, beautiful, with a cow's head. There is even an image where the sacred cow Hathor feeds the queen with the milk of immortality. Well, she did not become immortal. At the age of about 50, Hatshepsut died. She was succeeded by Thutmose III, that very boy whom she had removed from power. The new pharaoh harbored a grudge. First of all, he ordered all images of the queen to be erased, destroyed from all monuments, from all buildings. He generally planned to ensure that the memory of the queen was destroyed and future generations would never know anything about her. But, as we have already figured out, Hatshepsut built a lot, so it was not possible to destroy her name everywhere. For example, in the queen's favorite temple in Deir el-Bahari. It was there in 1828 that Jean-François Champollion, the legendary philologist who first deciphered Egyptian hieroglyphs, found a mention of the queen. It might seem that the pharaohs of Egypt had somehow not enough wives and children. Well, yes, we have one son for one, and none at all for another. This doesn't always seem to be the case. There were truly large families. For example, Amenhotep II, the great-grandson of Thutmose II, had, well, about ten different wives and a huge harem. Why do we know this? For a simple reason. For each new wedding, the pharaoh sent stone scarabs to his subjects. This is a kind of ancient Egyptian messenger. The stone was, of course, precious, well, for example, lapis lazuli, and the scarab beetle was a symbol of the sun and rebirth for the Egyptians. Several batches of scarabs made in honor of different pharaoh's weddings have survived. One series is dedicated to Tiye. She was a girl from a wealthy but not royal family. It is interesting that the pharaoh was so grateful to Tiye's parents for giving him a wife, for giving birth, that he ordered an artificial lake to be dug near their estate. That is, well, I don't know what to compare it to now, to give the wife's parents, probably some huge mansion, and also a Ferrari, because water is the most important treasure. Another series of scarabs was dedicated to the arrival of Princess Gilukhipa of Mitanni. Amenhotep perfectly understood dynastic marriage and, accordingly, actively corresponded with the fathers of the brides. And some letters have survived on clay tablets. They are written in cuneiform that at the court of the future son-in-law, do not confuse the translation. Everyone knew that the pharaoh had a large harem. And it is clear that the Eastern kings, the fathers, were worried. So the pharaoh takes another wife. How will he pay attention to her or not? Once there was even a political scandal. Amenhotep II wanted the daughter of the Babylonian king as his wife. And he writes to him: "You desire my daughter as a wife, but my sister, whom my father gave to you, has been living with you for a long time, and none of my ambassadors have seen her. Is she even alive or not?" But the pharaoh was angered by such an address, and he replied in the following spirit: "So, your ambassadors are donkeys, they lie about everything. They have never seen the princess and would not recognize her even if she walked past them." In fact, no one ever saw the pharaoh's wives and concubines. They lived in a special place called Per-hener. This is, well, an analogue of the future Turkish harem or, if you like, an elite women's dormitory. Here lived the king's wives with children, lived his brides, lived his concubines, lived his adult daughters, and lived the pharaoh's relatives. In addition, of course, nannies, wet nurses, maids, and so on. Of course, this was not yet a harem like the Ottomans had. Women were not confined. They did not leave this room. No, they could visit guests, they went shopping, they were taught to dance, play musical instruments, sew clothes for the pharaoh. There was even its own school. In general, the pharaoh could enter into a political marriage and even never see his new wife. But at the same time, he was sure that she was fine. If anything, she would be given to him immediately upon the first request from the dormitory. Therefore, the Babylonians, of course, did not understand such principles. And they were, to put it mildly, surprised. And their questions, it is clear why Amenhotep was greatly angered. There were many wives in the harem. Only the chief wife was truly close to the pharaoh. She was also the Great Royal Wife. And for Amenhotep, this was Tiye. All the years the ruler was in power, she was by his side. She helped him with advice, handled his affairs, conducted correspondence. She was even depicted the same size as the pharaoh. This is not a common thing for a queen. She bore him six children, four daughters and two sons. The elder son died before reaching adulthood. The younger inherited the throne. This is the legendary rebellious pharaoh Amenhotep IV, who would later be called Akhenaten. He was still young in those times. And in general, no one suspected what upheavals this man would bring to Egypt. Amenhotep IV was not prepared for kingship. Unlike his father, he did not like hunting, did not like weapons, and spent a lot of time with his teacher. His mentor was the court architect, a man of incredible education, with a special view for that time, of course, with a special view on religion. This view, of course, he passed on to his student. Upon ascending the throne, Amenhotep I proclaimed: "There are changes in our pantheon. The main god in the state is now Aten. The deity of the solar disk. And I am the only son of Aten." That is, he immediately tells everyone directly that I have a direct connection with God and intermediaries, that is, priests, are not needed. Why does he do this? Well, most likely, the priesthood had already seized all the levers of power to such an extent that they needed to be weakened. During the Old Kingdom, it was believed that the pharaoh was an incarnate god. He ruled alone. But over hundreds of years, the priests had so confused everything and their authority had grown so much that now it was considered differently. The pharaoh is, of course, an incarnate god, but he does not communicate with the gods and therefore does not know what they want. But the priests know and can explain. Therefore, priests must be cherished, they must be consulted, they must be given money, and generally do as the priests say. Before the reform, the chief priests were servants of the god Amun in Thebes. They received a huge portion of everything: from military spoils, from taxes. They had their own fleet, their own construction crews. The title of priest was inherited. That is, they built dynasties, well, really no worse than pharaonic ones. And the city of priests of Amun, Thebes, in wealth, had long surpassed Memphis, the ancient official capital. Amenhotep's father moved his palace to Thebes, well, to be closer to the priests, to communicate with them more easily. And, of course, everything that was happening no longer corresponded to the idea of the pharaoh's sole power. Of course, no ruler likes such restrictions. This is the autocratic version. There is the wise ruler version, let's call it that. The New Kingdom of Egypt is an empire with many different peoples. Phoenicians, Jews, peoples of Nubia and Libya. All of them pray to different gods. And to unite them, Amenhotep I created a universal cult of the sun without Egyptian national characteristics. That is, it can be assumed that he is the author of the world's first monotheistic religion. Of course, it cannot be said that he invented everything from scratch. Aten was worshipped in Egypt before. Aten was one of the hypostases of the sun god Amun-Ra. To understand this, let's quickly review the history of religion in ancient Egypt. The Egyptians worshipped the sun for a very long time. In the Old Kingdom, the main god was considered Ra. His priests lived in Heliopolis. In the New Kingdom, the cult of Amun, the god of air, gained strength. Amun means hidden. Very convenient for the priests. No one can communicate with God except them, because no one sees God, but they do. Amun merged with the god Ra into one cult. Amun-Ra is a complex mystical cult. This mysticism was accessible only to the priests. Well, it's clear why, right? Aten is an attempt to return a visible god to ordinary people. In the fifth year of his reign, Amenhotep takes a decisive step. He says: "I now call myself Akhenaten, that is, acting in the name of Aten, and I declare my god the chief god in the Egyptian pantheon." At the same time, he understands that the old cult cannot be destroyed. It is simply necessary to show that the new God is the strongest. Therefore, in the temple of Amun in Thebes, he erects a giant statue of Aten, and then builds a new capital called Akhetaten. And he moves everything there, the entire court, the entire family, all officials. This is very important. The pharaoh of the New Kingdom in Egypt is so strong and rich that in 4 years he can build a new city in the desert with palaces for the nobility, with quarters for workers. Well, this is incredibly ambitious. How long does it take to build new sixteen-story buildings in your city now? They will build them in 4 years, and here a city was built in 4 years. And so, a huge number of people move to the new city: officials, artisans. Well, it's clear, the capital, so all the money is in the capital. Among the first to arrive in the new capital is the pharaoh's wife, the legendary Nefertiti, whose name is also well known to us. Their family was strong and, apparently, happy. Many images of them and Nefertiti have survived, how they hold hands, touch each other, how they play with children. And this is very atypical. The pharaoh in Egypt is, well, a living god, he is mighty, powerful, and here are some cooing, right? What is this? Some kisses. Akhenaten reformed art. In his capital, he created a new style in sculpture and painting. Today, this style is called Amarna. In the last years of his reign, Akhenaten handed over the country to the viceroys. Well, and of course, he soon regretted it. While he was fighting cults, the warlike Hittite neighbors gained strength. They skillfully bribed and lured Egypt's vassals to their side. When they couldn't, they captured their lands. And so, allies told the pharaoh for years: "Help, the Hittites are bothering us, they are destroying our cities." Well, what about the pharaoh? He says: "I have the construction of a new cult here, I have Nefertiti here. What about allied obligations?" It is obvious that Egypt's political weight was falling. The pharaoh lived in some kind of bubble. He didn't notice any of this. There is a version that his wife Nefertiti died. He plunged into mourning. Perhaps at some point, all this monotheism failed, and, in general, the pharaoh fell into anabiose. We don't know for sure, historical data about his last years have not survived. It is known that Akhenaten died in the seventeenth year of his reign. All his reforms were immediately rolled back. The cult of Aten quickly withered. This capital, Amarna, was abandoned by all the rich palaces with all these frescoes, with mosaics. Everything was covered with sand. But after the death of Akhenaten, chaos began in the state. His son-in-law first became king, and then his son from his own sister, Tutankhamun. Let's briefly jump to the present. Tombs in the Valley of the Kings in Egypt have been studied for hundreds of years. All of them were plundered long ago, the latest in the Middle Ages. That is, archaeologists were left with only dust and fragments. By the beginning of the 20th century, researchers were convinced that there was nothing left in the Valley of the Kings. But in 1916, archaeologist Howard Carter found a clay jug and found fabrics with the name Tutankhamun. He realized that these were ritual objects from the pharaoh's funeral. That is, somewhere nearby there should be an entrance to a tomb that no one had found yet. The stairs to the tomb were found 6 years later, on November 4, 1922. After walking a few meters down the corridor, the archaeologist saw a door, bricked up and covered with plaster. The priests' seals on it were intact. And so, after the arrival of the Egyptian administration, Carter opened the door. Behind it was an incredible treasure. They found everything that a pharaoh might need in the afterlife: gold jewelry, chariots, furniture. More than 5,000 items, and these were only the antechambers. In one of the walls, archaeologists discovered a passage to the burial chamber. And so Howard Carter found the world's first preserved pharaoh's tomb. In general, researchers were very surprised. The tomb was small, it looked somewhat unfinished. Some even said that it might not be a real tomb at all. But it's all simple. Tutankhamun died suddenly. He did not have time to build himself a proper tomb according to all the canons. His mother ordered her son to be buried simply in, well, there is a free tomb, there is. Well, let's. Perhaps this tomb was built for one of her daughters. Maybe for herself. That is, instead of a magnificent pyramid, Tutankhamun received a rather modest burial place. But it is this modesty that preserved his name for history. Grave robbers simply did not find it over the centuries. Getting to the mummy itself was not easy. Scientists found four gilded coffins. They were made of cedar and nested one inside another, like matryoshkas. In the last one was a stone carved sarcophagus. Inside it were two more wooden gilded sarcophagi in the shape of a body, also nested one inside another. And finally, in the last one, a completely gold sarcophagus. Can you imagine the research thrill they experienced? And they open it, and there is the mummy of the young pharaoh. Well, it must be said that he died at the age of 19. He did nothing glorious. The most important thing is that his tomb was preserved. That is why Tutankhamun is the most famous pharaoh in history. In 2009, scientists conducted DNA research, and the test confirmed that Akhenaten was his close relative, most likely his father, and his mother was the pharaoh's own sister. In general, among pharaohs, this was considered completely normal. The concept of incest was absent. It was the preservation of divine blood. At the same time, well, you understand, genetic mutations accumulated. For example, Tutankhamun's toes on his right foot were underdeveloped. Most likely, he walked with a cane all his life. In the tomb next to him lay as many as 130 sticks. He also constantly suffered from malaria, and medicine was placed in his tomb. Despite his poor health and short life, the young pharaoh managed to marry, as was proper, as was customary, his own sister. Touching images of them were found in the tomb. In general, the biography of the most famous pharaoh is quite sad. It is not surprising that almost immediately after the tomb was opened, terrible stories about the pharaoh's curse appeared. In 8 years, several expedition members died for various reasons. Well, and of course, the newspapers made a sensation out of it. The first to die from the pharaoh's curse was Lord Carnarvon, the patron of archaeologist Carter, that is, the investor who was present at the opening of the tomb. He shaved unsuccessfully, an infection got into the wound, blood poisoning occurred, no antibiotics. The patron died in a Cairo hospital in April 1923. The following year, the expedition's radiologist died. In 1928, one of the archaeologists, although he was sick even before the tomb was opened and constantly complained of health during the expedition. In 1929, Carter's personal secretary was found dead in his bed. And a year later, a British Museum employee who was packing the items found in the tomb died of blood poisoning. This list is quite frightening. The journalists, of course, could not ignore it. If we assume that the curse existed, it is completely unclear why Carter, the main, active participant, remained alive. In 2002, an American epidemiologist decided to check the legend. He calculated how many people were present at the opening of the tomb. That's 44 people. He compared the ages of all participants and concluded that, on average, the researchers of Tutankhamun's tomb lived to be 70 years old. That is, it turns out, there was no mummy's curse. Tutankhamun was the last pharaoh who belonged by blood to the Eighteenth Dynasty. He left no heirs. After his death, military leaders ascended the throne one after another. Yes, again, let's draw an analogy with Rome. Remember those soldier emperors? That's exactly what happened in Egypt. One of them, named Ramesses I, became the founder of the new Nineteenth Dynasty. His grandson, Ramesses II, glorified this dynasty. Well, first of all, he ruled for 66 years. Where is this even going? It's simply incredible how people in Ancient Egypt even lived that long. But he ruled for only 66 years. He was a brilliant military commander. Campaigns in Nubia, in Asia, wars with the Hittites. Under him, the Egyptian army began to use war chariots en masse for the first time. They later appeared in many cultures. He was also the author of the first peace treaty in history. Ramesses was the son of Pharaoh Seti I. Seti was a strong and powerful guy. From the age of 10, his father took him to battles, taught him to drive a war chariot. At about 15, his father transferred the status of pharaoh to him, so that he could see his son's triumph during his lifetime. And the ruler had something to be proud of. His subjects called their son the golden falcon, which, spreading its wings, casts a blessed shadow, or a fierce lion with extended claws. That's what a young dynasty means. Not some gentle intellectual pharaoh, but a fierce lion. By the way, documents of the era say that Ramesses II, however, had a pet lion. He took it with him to war so that the beast would naturally guard his tent. Or maybe it purred like a cat for him at night. The young warlike pharaoh wanted to conquer the whole world. Well, the whole world that he knew. For this, he first carried out a military reform, increased the army, allowed foreigners to be recruited into the military. Then he dealt with internal conflicts in Egypt. Well, first of all, he dealt with the Nubians. Nubia has been part of Egypt for many years. There are gold mines, there is ebony, ivory. But the people there are constantly rebelling. And pharaohs, one after another, constantly went to pacify the Nubians. Ramesses pacified them and pacified the Libyan neighbors, who, at every change of dynasty, staged raids, hoping to snatch something from the Egyptian land in this chaos. He managed to fight with the Sherden pirates. Who are they? These are the Sardinians, the inhabitants, you won't believe it, of today's Sardinia. And then the confrontation with Egypt's main enemy, the Hittite kingdom, was approaching. This is the strongest people in Asia. They have been forming a coalition against Egypt for 10 years. The Hittite king, Muwatallis, in general, is the same pharaoh, with the same ambitions. I want to subjugate the entire surrounding world. And so, in the fifth year of his reign, Ramesses II led his troops to Asia. For the battle with the Hittites, he assembled an army incredible for the ancient world. More than 20,000 warriors, 500 war chariots. But the Hittites assembled more, 30,000 soldiers. The armies met near the fortress of Kadesh. And it was clear to everyone that the greatest battle for the title of champion of the Ancient World was coming. The Hittites used military cunning. Allegedly, they sent Egyptian defectors who brought disinformation, like the Hittite army is far away, you can advance and capture the fortress. Ramesses II led his troops forward and immediately, of course, fell into an ambush. And the battle would have ended, but the Hittites, instead of killing the pharaoh, went to plunder his tents. Here I want to say: "But the lion is sitting there, where did you go? The lion is sitting there, guarding the tents." Well, there is no lion sitting there. Maybe it is, but history is silent. Instead of a lion, other Egyptian units arrived. The Hittites, with their looted belongings, lost their initiative, lost most of their chariots, and took refuge in the fortress, and fresh and fresh reserves began to arrive for the Egyptians. In general, in the end, it became clear that the forces were equal. The Egyptians turned their army back. The war with the Hittites lasted 16 years. At the end of 16 years, both rulers realized that the war had reached a stalemate, they had to stop where they were. And this cannot continue further, because this war is ruining both countries. And so the first peace treaty in history happened. The Egyptian version is carved in hieroglyphs on the walls of the Karnak Temple. The Hittite version is recorded in cuneiform on clay tablets. Now, an exact copy of the Kadesh peace treaty hangs at the UN headquarters in New York. And the guarantee of peace was, as usual, a woman. They sealed the peace by the pharaoh marrying a Hittite princess. In Egypt, the ensuing peace was presented as a natural victory of Ramesses II. I think the Hittites did the same. Returning home, the pharaoh begins the most massive campaign of personality cult. On his orders, monuments are redone. How are they redone? Well, it's hard to build new ones, but you need to quickly create a personality cult. So, they take the statue of Amenhotep III or Thutmose II. The old pharaohs' names are erased, and the name of Ramesses II is carved over them. Ah, so the pharaoh's statue is old, but the name is new. In addition, the pharaoh completes construction projects that were started before the war. For example, the temple in Karnak. And, of course, something grandiose is needed. In Nubia, he erects the grandiose temple complex of Abu Simbel. These are huge halls, columns, huge sanctuaries. All this is carved directly into sandstone cliffs. Four twenty-meter statues of Ramesses on the facade greeted everyone who sailed from Nubia to Egypt. Imagine what an incredible sight it was. Ancient architects calculated the position of the temple so that twice a year a sunbeam falls exactly on the statue of Ramesses himself, which is the statue located inside. By old times, and by new ones too, Ramesses lived an incredibly long life, 92 years. Usually, pharaohs had one Great Royal Wife, but Ramesses lived so long that he outlived everyone. And he even outlived the Hittite princess, whom he married as a sign of peace. He had more than a hundred children, and he built a common crypt for them. This is an amazing burial, how do we know about it at all? Archaeologist Kent Weeks found it in ninety-five, in 1995. The Egyptian authorities, it sounds very funny, of course, wanted to build a parking lot and invited specialists, thank God, to confirm that there was nothing valuable under the parking lot. And Weeks discovered a whole city underground. To date, about 120 burials have been opened. How many there are in total, no one knows. After Tutankhamun's tomb, this is the most significant discovery in Egyptian archaeology in the 20th century. And how much more interesting this legendary ancient civilization holds, one can only guess. Friends, what I want to say in conclusion of this episode. Egypt is an amazing, little-studied civilization, so ancient that myths and legends intertwine with real historical events. We had a champion episode, simply by views, about the pyramids. If you haven't seen it, please watch it. I talk more about the construction of the pyramids there. What else have we released about Egypt? Yes, in fact, not much. We had stories about Egypt in the cycle about the Roman Empire. Watch this cycle too, in case you haven't seen it. And we, of course, in the personalities cycle, had a huge episode by views about Cleopatra. Watch it too, if you happen to have missed it. Thank you for subscribing to the channel. We already have over 4 million subscribers. Thank you for being with us, and see you next time.