Transcription
The Lessons of History by Will Durant and Ariel Durant.
Preface.
Will and Ariel Durant share their motivation for writing The Lessons of History after completing their series, The Story of Civilization up to 1789. Upon rereading their 10 volumes to prepare for a new addition with corrections and additions, they realized that the events and commentaries in their work could illuminate current issues, open future prospects, and clarify human nature and the functioning of nations.
The references in this book are mainly drawn from the story of civilization, not because of its supremacy, but to illustrate and clarify arguments. Durant and Ariel attempted to delay conclusions until the survey was complete, but acknowledged that the illustrative materials were influenced by pre-existing viewpoints. Therefore, the lessons of history is a collection of essays built from this process.
The author's purpose is not to seek originality, but to provide a comprehensive view, a survey of human experience rather than a personal revelation. Finally, they expressed deep gratitude to their daughter Ethel, who assisted and provided valuable advice throughout this work.
Chapter 1: Hesitation.
The authors begin by posing the question every historian faces. Can studying the past help us understand human nature, illuminate the present, and predict the future? Or is history merely a repetition of old mistakes? They express skepticism about fully grasping the truth of the past, noting that historical information is often incomplete, inaccurate, obscured by contradictory evidence, historians biases, and influences from patriotism and religious reverence.
Even historians attempting to overcome bias may reveal hidden prejudices through their selection of materials and expressions. Thus, conclusions drawn from the past about the future can be dangerous, especially as society changes rapidly with new inventions and situations constantly pushing people to adjust their behavior and thinking. Additionally, random factors can profoundly influence history, such as Alexander the Great's sudden death or Frederick the Great's narrow escape.
History according to the authors cannot be purely scientific but is a combination of technique, art and philosophy. It is a technique in seeking authentic information, an art in arranging chaotic information into meaningful order and a philosophy in broadening human understanding. The philosophy of history helps us illuminate the present moment through the light of the past. Though having a complete view of all history is an illusion because our knowledge of human history is still very limited.
Relativity governs all formulas or patterns in history. And thus every theory must be questioned because history always surpasses any attempt to force it into a theoretical mold. Within these limits, history teaches us the virtue of patience to endure reality and respect each other's illusions. Humanity though a small part of the universe's flow is just a moment in the vast time of the universe a member of a family and community. Therefore we need to turn to fields like astronomy, geography, biology, psychology, ethics, religion, economics, politics and war to understand the lessons history teaches about human nature, behavior and future. Although condensing centuries of historical events into a 100 pages is risky, the authors decide to undertake this survey.
Chapter 2. History and the Earth.
History, according to the authors, is a series of events recording the past. But its first lesson is humility. Humans, no matter how great, are just a small part in the vast universe, easily swept away by natural disasters. The earth with its constant movements has left deep marks on human history. The sea encroaches on land, mountains rise and fall. Rivers change course and fertile valleys turn into deserts. The ground is always shifting and humans despite their efforts remain fragile on it.
Climate though not as rigidly controlling as Montescu or Buckle imagined still greatly influences the survival of civilizations. Human intelligence can help overcome geological difficulties, but natural forces like tornadoes or icebergs can still destroy great works and lives. Light rain can bury a civilization under sand, while heavy rain can overwhelm it with jungles. Climate change can push civilizations into decline. Although humans learn to tame the earth, their ultimate fate is to rest in its embrace.
Geography is the invisible factor shaping history, both nurturing and harsh to humanity. Rivers, lakes, oases, and oceans not only create trade routes, but are also vital for communities. Great civilizations like Egypt, Mesopotamia, and China developed along major rivers where fertile land favored agriculture. When Greece's population exceeded the land's capacity, they established colonies along the Mediterranean and Black Sea coasts. The Mediterranean was the center of power for 2,000 years. But from 1492, the explorations of Columbus and Vosco Dama changed this, giving way to Atlantic nations.
The development of airplanes and other transport technologies has altered the map of civilization, favoring air transport and giving advantages to large landlocked countries like Russia, China and Brazil. While nations like England and France gradually lose their strategic advantages. Although geography still has a strong influence, technological development has reduced its impact. It is humans who are the decisive factor as they exploit and utilize natural potential to create new civilizations. History proves that it is not the earth but humans who create civilization.
Chapter 3. Biology and history.
History according to the authors is part of biology with humans being a piece in the ups and downs of life on Earth. When viewing the entire human chronicle in this broad picture, humans become humble. Biological laws like evolution, the struggle for survival, and the big fish eats the small fish are not only fundamental lessons of biology, but also the core of history. Life is a constant competition, not only in commerce, but in every exchange activity. Cooperation is actually another form of competition helping to strengthen collective power.
The second biological lesson is that life is a process of selection. In the struggle for resources and dominance, some organisms succeed while others fail. Nature does not care about freedom or equality. Humans are not born equal but differ in physical, mental, and personality traits. Inequality increases with the development of civilization. New inventions further widen the gap, making the strong stronger and the weak weaker. Specialization in the economy also creates disparities among individuals. Freedom and equality are opposing concepts. When freedom increases, inequality also increases. And to control inequality, freedom must be sacrificed. Talented people will seek freedom while those below average desire equality.
The third biological lesson is that life must reproduce. Nature focuses on quantity to select quality. Nature cares more about the survival of the species than the individual without distinguishing between civilized or barbaric. Nations with low birth rates will face the risk of being conquered by more populous and thriving nations. When the population exceeds the food supply, nature uses three tools to restore balance: famine, disease, and war. As Thomas Mouthys explained, although advances in agriculture and contraception refute Mouthys' theory, he still believes it's only delaying the disaster because land has limits and medicine weakens natural selection.
Optimists believe that industrialization and education will reduce birth rates in high birth manipulations. Ideally, childbearing should be the privilege of healthy individuals, not a product of sexual stimulation. There is evidence that contraception reduces the intelligence of nations that use it as intelligent groups tend to use contraception more. However, intelligence is mainly the result of education and opportunity, not genetics. The history of Greece and Rome shows that family planning changed the population structure and weakened the nation's strength. The low birth rate of Anglo-Saxons in the United States may weaken their economic and political power, while Roman Catholicism may become dominant due to higher birth rates. This illustrates that birth rates like war can determine the fate of theological systems.
Chapter 4. Race and history.
The history of race begins with the presence of two billion people of color and 900 million white people in the world. Joseph Arthur De Goenol in his essay on the inequality of human races claimed that humanity is composed of different races each with its own physical, mental, character, and quality characteristics. Gobonino argued that all great achievements in civilization came from the Aryan race and a society is only truly brilliant when it preserves this bloodline. He believed that the decline of civilization is the result of mixing strong blood with weaker races.
Houston Stewart Chamberlain narrowed the Aryan concept to Tutin and claimed that history only began when the Germans took over the ancient heritage. German writers also supported this view leading to Alfred Rosenberg making German blood the myth of the 20th century and Adolf Hitler using this theory to carry out the Jewish genocide. Madison Grant, an American, claimed that the Nordic branch of the Aryans created great civilizations. However, this theory has clear flaws. A Chinese scholar would point out that the longest lasting civilization is their own. Or a Mexican scholar would mention the Maya, Aztec, and Inca civilizations.
History does not care about skin color, and civilization can flourish under any race. Even within the white race, Semmites can site great civilizations like Babylonia, Assyria, and Palestine. Ancient civilizations like Egypt, Greece, and Rome were combinations of geographical circumstances and economic and political development, not ethnicity. Race is only the beginning, not the determining factor in history. Races gather in one land. Cultural exchanges create new breeds and nations like the formation of the English race.
Civilization does not create humans. Humans create civilization. Geographical, economic, and political circumstances create culture, and this culture shapes the unique characteristics of humans. The current American civilization is still in the melting pot stage, and in a few centuries, it may form a homogeneous race. Historical knowledge teaches that civilization is a collaborative work of many peoples, a common heritage of all. A civilized person is not only shown through individual talent, but also through how they treat every individual, regardless of their background as representatives of all the collectives that have contributed to building human civilization.
Chapter 5. Character and history.
This study explores the relationship between society, human nature, and history with the view that society is not formed from abstract ideals, but from human nature itself. Society is not a product of lofty theories but the result of basic tendencies and emotions in each individual. These positive and negative instincts with the function of protecting the individual and the species create habits and emotions thereby forming human nature.
Regarding whether human nature changes throughout history, the authors argue that change can theoretically occur but human behavior does not change much. The Greeks in Plato's time behaved like modern French people and the Romans acted like the English. Tools may change, but human motives and purposes remain the same. History also shows that rebel factions after winning apply the methods they once condemned when facing opponents.
Human evolution is not only biological but also deeply social occurring through economic, political, intellectual and moral reforms passed down through customs and education. However, when new situations arise, creative responses are needed to cope. Social development must go handinhand with the ability to experiment and innovate, factors equivalent to mutation and variation in biology. Social evolution is the result of the interaction between tradition and creativity. Uniqueness individuals with initiative, great men, heroes, geniuses are those who reclaim the role of shaping history. They are not only products of their time but also symbols of the events they both cause and articulate.
When these individuals become heroes, the demands and praises during crisis often inflate their ego and power, elevating them to a new level. However, they are not just effects of circumstances. Through their thoughts and decisions, they have created historical processes. Figures like Churchill or Napoleon can change the course of an era. And someone like the prophet Muhammad can uplift an entire nation with just words.
In the table of personality factors, imitation and innovation often combine powerfully. The masses being submissive will follow leaders to create social order. The crowd follows a minority with innovative ideas and this minority follows the initiative of an individual. History is fundamentally the conflict between minorities while the masses only applaud the winners and provide manpower for social experiments. Intelligence is the lifeblood of history, but also carries destructive power. Out of a 100 new ideas, 99 are worse than tradition. No brilliant intellectual can fully understand and judge all social customs or institutions. That wisdom is distilled through centuries of experimentation in the laboratory of history. Therefore, conservatives, though resisting change, are as valuable as radicals proposing change because roots are always more important than branches. New ideas need to undergo testing, opposition, and criticism before becoming part of humanity. The conflict between the old and the young, between men and women, between classes creates creative force driving the development and integration of society. The conflict between the old and the young, between men and women, between classes creates creative force driving the development and integration of society.
Chapter 6. Morality and history.
Morality according to the authors is the set of rules that a society encourages people to follow to maintain order and development. Laws are what must be obeyed. Those with only superficial historical knowledge might conclude that morality has no value because it changes over time and place, even contradicting itself. However, those who understand history deeply emphasize the universality and necessity of morality. Although moral rules change with historical context and conditions, they still have common principles.
Economic history goes through three major periods. Hunting, agriculture, and industry. And the set of moral principles also changes with each period. In the hunting period, aggression, cruelty, greed, and sexuality helped humans survive. When humanity shifted to agriculture, diligence became more important than courage, and peace was valued over war. In this phase, children became economic assets and birth control was considered immoral. Patriarchy dominated economic power with early marriage and monogamy becoming the norm. This moral system persisted for 1500 years, shaping influential figures in European Christian history.
The industrial revolution dramatically changed both the economic form and the moral system. Men, women, and children left their families to join factories, receiving individual wages. Economic adulthood was delayed. Children were no longer assets, and people began to postpone marriage. Pre-marital chastity became harder as urban life promoted sexual liberation. Women were liberated, and contraception allowed sex without children. Industrialization promoted individualism and weakened parental authority in families. Science and technology introduced a materialistic philosophy making education skeptical of religion and morality gradually lost its supernatural support causing the agricultural moral code to fade.
In modern times, like during the times of Socrates and Augustus, war made people less concerned with morality. Violence and social disruption after wars weakened morality with divorce, abortion, and adultery increasing. However, history also offers comfort by reminding that humans have always aired throughout ages. Homosexuality was prevalent in ancient Greece, Rome, and the Renaissance. Prostitution existed in various forms from state brothel to modern nightclubs. People still face gambling, deceit, and corrupt governments. Voltater and Gibbons said that history is a collection of crimes, follyies, and misfortunes. However, history does not accurately reflect reality because historians record only special and rare events. Behind the events of war and politics are millions of orderly families and decent people living with mutual compassion. History also has countless cases of kindness and virtue. Charitable gifts sometimes no less than cruelty.
This shows that moral decay in this era may just be a transitional phase from agricultural morality to an incomplete industrial morality. History consoles us that civilizations collapse very slowly. Greece and Rome despite moral decay still produced masterpieces and great statesmen. Meanwhile, military training in war can restore discipline. Individual freedom changes with the level of collective security. Debauchery may correct itself when its excess makes order and modesty fashionable. While waiting, moral freedom can bring benefits, freeing people from theological fears and allowing them to enjoy harmless pleasures.
Chapter 7. Religion and history.
Religion has always played an essential role in every era, even for skeptical historians. It not only provides supernatural comfort but also helps parents and teachers train the younger generation, gives meaning to the lowly and creates social stability. Napoleon once said that religion prevents the poor from killing the rich and supernatural hope is the only solution to despair over natural inequality. Destroying this hope according to him would lead to class war.
Initially, religion was not about morality but stemmed from fear of invisible forces. When priests used fear and rituals to support morality and law, religion became an important force, also a rival to the state. Religion declared morality and law as commands of the gods and rulers were appointed by the gods. Although immorality still prevailed, religion helped reduce slavery, clan hatred, and prolong peace. The church claimed to be above states, teaching that unchecked patriotism becomes a tool of greed and crime. However, this dream was shattered by nationalism and human weakness.
The church was run by mundane people leading to corruption, bias, and becoming a political tool. The Inquisition almost became a disgrace, and the church caused religious wars. Nevertheless, the church modestly contributed to modern moral progress such as abolishing slavery and paving the way for the humanist movement. History has justified the church, claiming that humanity always seeks a religion rich in miracles and mysteries. The church did not change its doctrine despite logical contradictions to keep the faithful. A reconciliation between religion and philosophy can only occur when philosophers recognize the moral responsibility of the church and the church recognizes the right to freedom of belief.
Does history support belief in God? If God is a supreme being full of wisdom and kindness, the answer is no. History like biology is a process of natural selection where kindness does not help. Along with crimes and wars, there are earthquakes, storms, diseases as if God created to inflict on humans. These evidences show that it is a blind and impartial fate. If history supports any theological theory, it is dualism like Zoroastrianism with good and evil spirits battling for control of the universe.
The realization of humanity's small place in the universe has reduced religious faith, especially since Capernacus's discovery in 1543. The death of God began then with the development of science, historical knowledge, and the Protestant Reformation. Many discovered similarities between Christianity and other religions along with the fraud and abuse of the Inquisition. Industry replaced agriculture, turning the world into a great machine. Christianity dug its own grave by instilling in believers a moral consciousness that made them unable to accept a wrathful god. The notion of hell disappeared from the thoughts of the educated. The sophistication of the ancient Greeks shook faith in the gods on Olympus. Similarly, the development of Christian ethics eroded Christian theology. Replacing Christian institutions with secular agencies is a consequence of the industrial revolution. Catholicism survives because it appeals to the imagination, evokes hope, and comforts the poor through mystical stories. Christians reclaimed lands lost in the Reformation through prolific reproduction. Catholicism also converts and attracts those weary of changing reason or desiring the church to prevent internal disorder and new waves of faith. History teaches that religion has many lives and is often reborn. Gods and beliefs have died and been reborn.
Chapter 8. Economics and history.
History according to Karl Marx is the operation of economics where all struggles between individuals, classes, and nations revolve around seizing resources and economic power. The industrial revolution led to the birth of democracy, women's rights, and the development of socialism, but religion declined. In reality, economic ambition, not Helen's beauty, drove the Greeks to attack Troy. History through the economic lens clarifies many events. The Parthonon was built with Delhian League finances and Rome revived with Egypt's treasury. The Crusades and wars with Persia aimed to capture important trade routes. The Medici family funded the Renaissance in Florence and the French Revolution erupted when the middle class demanded legislative power.
However, Markx underestimated the role of non-economic motives like religious zeal and nationalism. Political and military power are often the main causes as seen in the Bolshevik revolution overthrowing Thesar. Poor nations sometimes are stronger than rich ones, and military victory brings political authority leading to economic control. Rome's weakening before the barbarians was due to replacing the rural population, the main source of soldiers, with slaves.
Today, agriculture must shift to large-scale production under private or public ownership, and farmers have only two choices. Work for capitalists or the state. History also records that those who control work will be managed by those who control people. Only those who control money control everything. Bankers by monitoring trends and directing capital flows, controlling loans, interest rates, and businesses have climbed to the top of the economic pyramid. Financial families like the Medici, Fugger, Rothschild engaged in dealings with governments, funding wars, and the papacy.
Historical experience shows that any economic form must use profit to stimulate productivity. Alternative forms like slavery, police coercion or ideological stimulation are less effective. Typically, a person is valued based on their production capacity except in war when their value is determined by their destructive capacity. Actual capacities of individuals vary and most of that capacity is concentrated in a minority leading to wealth concentration. The speed of wealth concentration varies with economic freedom. dictatorships can slow it down while democracies accelerate it.
When wealth concentration reaches a critical level, history shows two solutions. Legal reform to redistribute wealth or revolution. Solon prevented revolution in Athens with reforms. And in Rome, Tiberius Graas was killed after proposing land redistribution. Finally, Julius Caesar and Augustus established a dictatorship to maintain Pax Romana. After 476, the western Roman Empire declined and wealth was reconcentrated in the Catholic Church. The Protestant Reformation redistributed wealth by cutting aid to the church. The French Revolution redistributed wealth from the aristocracy to the bourgeoisi. The US government in 1933, 1952 and 1960, 1965 applied peaceful solutions to redistribute property. Wealth concentration is natural and cyclally it will be alleviated through wealth redistribution whether peacefully or violently. Economic history like the heartbeat of society always maintains wealth concentration and then is forced to redistribute it.
Chapter nine. Socialism and history.
The history between socialism and capitalism reflects the process of concentrating and dispersing wealth in society. Capitalists play the role of history makers from gathering savings into capital, mechanizing industry and agriculture to rationalizing product distribution. They argue that free enterprise without taxes or regulations will be more efficient than any industry managed by politicians and the competition mechanism forces capitalists to work hard producing increasingly excellent products. However, these arguments do not explain why history witnessed protests and uprisings against industrial power, price manipulation, and the irresponsibility of the rich.
Socialist experiments occurred in many countries like Sumer where the stateowned land and distributed agricultural products or Babylonia with Hammurabi's code setting fixed wages for professions. Egypt under the problemic dynasty is a typical example of statec controlled economy owning land managing agriculture and monopolizing banking. Egypt became a wealthy nation but later pharaohs engaged in costly wars indulged in debauchery leading to moral decay and violent strikes. Similarly, Rome under diocian tried socialism with price ceilings and free food distribution to the poor. But bureaucracy and corruption caused the regime to fail and surfom began to form.
China also had efforts to build a socialist state with Emperor Wu of Han nationalizing resources and implementing price control policies. Although China prospered for a time after Emperor Wu's death and natural disasters, reforms were abolished. Wong An Xi during his tenure as prime minister applied socialist policies but high tax rates and corruption caused the experiment to fail. The oldest socialist regime was that of the Incas in Peru where imperial power was granted by the sun god. The Incas controlled everything from agriculture to trade and this system remained stable until Pizarro conquered Peru in 1533.
Socialism, though dormant during the Renaissance, flared up again when the true face of the industrial revolution was revealed. Early capitalism was associated with the exploitation of child and female labor, sparking outrage and stimulating the socialist movement. Karl Marx and Friedrich Engles wrote the communist manifesto and capital, expecting socialism to succeed in England, but it exploded in Russia. Modern socialism emerged in Russia where early capitalism after the Tsarist regime weakened due to war and poor management. The revolution was forced to turn to socialism when the Russian state faced internal chaos and foreign invasion. Today, socialism in Russia is restoring individual incentives to stimulate production. While capitalism limits private ownership through socialist laws and state welfare systems, the West is now moving towards a combination with the government's role in the economy increasing while the private sector decreases. Capitalism maintains free enterprise, competition, and abundant goods, but applies high taxes to provide public services, while socialism promotes equality. East and West will soon intersect.
Chapter 10. Government and history.
The history of government originates from the human instinct for freedom. But individual freedom needs limits to prevent chaos. The government's task is to maintain social order. And the only way to deal with disruptive private forces is to concentrate power. Leaders like Rishelu, Bismar, and the US political system demonstrate the strength of centralized power. When industry and finance transcend national borders and international government becomes necessary, monarchy is seen as the natural form of government where the king's power is similar to that of a father in a family. Monarchy has dominated in terms of time and prevalence.
While democracy is a transitional phase after the collapse of Roman democracy, Augustus built the pax Romana lasting 210 years. Emperors like Nerva, Trajan, Hadrien, Antoninus Pius, and Marcus Aurelius glorified monarchy. But succession wars and hereditary rule sometimes caused chaos. Most governments have centralized power ruled by a minority. This minority can be aristocrats, clergy, or the wealthy. Rule by the majority is unnatural. The aristocraticy plays an important role in maintaining social order but rarely creates great works of art because they live a life of enjoyment and irresponsibility. The decadence of this class is inevitable when they oppress and exploit the people leading to uprisings like the French Revolution where power shifted from the aristocracy to the bourgeoisi.
History shows that revolutions do not redistribute wealth but mainly destroy it. Natural inequality among people will continue to create wealth and privilege disparities and a new minority force will rise to power. The real revolution is enlightening minds and improving human qualities. Democracy though truly emerging only from the French Revolution is a powerful model but gradually loses its initial conditions. Urban development reduces individual independence and political freedom becomes vague. These changes are consequences of economic development and human nature. Democracy requires widespread intelligence and leadership. Although education develops, intelligence is still hindered by the reproductive capacity of simple minds. It is stupidity that allows forces to manipulate public opinion.
Democracy may be responsible for the decline of art, but it brings greater value than any other form of government. Democracy creates space for new ideas, for science and economy to develop freely, breaking down the walls of privilege and class. In countries like the United States, England, Sweden, and Canada, democracy today remains strong, protecting against external and internal threats. However, if war continues to ravage or this democracy seeks to dominate the world, freedoms will give way to armed discipline and conflict. If free economy does not distribute wealth effectively, the path to dictatorship will open.
Chapter 11. History and war.
The history of war is an indispensable element not diminishing despite the development of civilization and democracy. In 3,421 recorded years, only 268 years were without war. War is seen as the ultimate competition of humanity, the source of many ideas, inventions, and institutions. Peace, on the other hand, is an unstable state maintained only when both sides have equal strength or through absolute power.
The causes of war are similar to the reasons for human rivalry, greed, belligerance, pride, and ambition for dominance. Nations also have similar instincts, but lack restraint. An individual may choose negotiation when protected by law, but the state has no limits because it can be too strong or lacks international oversight. Pride drives strength in competition and nationalism enhances power in diplomacy and war. When Europe escaped the Pope's dominance, nationalism became a tool to support armaments. A nation can easily incite hatred towards another, claiming to love peace while instigating war.
War in fundamental conflicts often uses coercion and fear to exclude foreign elements. In religious wars and the French Revolution, citizens of nations still respected each other's civilization, like English citizens traveling in France while the two countries were at war. However, from the 20th century, war became a struggle between peoples, affecting both civilians and soldiers. War is not only about victory but also about the destruction of wealth and lives. However, it also promotes scientific and technical development if humanity does not revert to barbarism.
Generals and emperors often disregard the philosophy of peace of philosophers. They see war as natural and necessary. For example, the battle of Tours in 732 prevented France and Spain from becoming Islamic lands. And the war against the Mongols protected the classical heritage. Generals believe that without war, many young men would live in debauchery. If they must die, at least they will sacrifice for their country in the glory of battle. Even philosophers who understand history acknowledge that prolonged peace can weaken a nation's fighting capacity.
In the inadequacy of international law and lack of clear rules, nations need to be ready to defend themselves at any time. When essential interests are threatened, a nation may use all means to protect its existence. The United States today is performing the task that England did in the 19th century, protecting Western civilization from external dangers. Non-communist nations yearning for industrial revolution to enhance strength have been overwhelmed by Russia's industrialization speed. Western capitalism produces more efficiently but develops more slowly. Is the United States willing to give up dominance to avoid being surrounded and embargoed by rivals?
Philosophers respond that tragic outcomes are inevitable in history, but the consequences will increase with the number and combat capabilities of the parties. However, there is something greater than history. At some point, in the name of humanity, we must turn our backs on bad precedents, courageously apply the golden rule in international relations. A nation needs to resolve conflicts not through war but through dialogue and inviable treaties. Generals smile and say that philosophers forget the lessons of history. Some conflicts are too fundamental to be resolved through negotiation. A world order cannot be achieved through agreements but through the decisive victory of a superpower. Periods of peace are exceptions and innovations in military power distribution will quickly end them. Nations only unite when attacked from outside. Perhaps we are heading towards an interplanetary war when confronting ambitious species from other planets. Only then will humanity unite as one.
Chapter 12. Progress and decline.
Civilization is defined as a social order that promotes cultural creation, including political and economic order. Cultural creation comes from freedom and material foundations encouraging new ideas, literature and art to develop. However, civilization is also a complex network easily disrupted. The question is why there are ruins of old civilizations. Is the death of civilization an inevitable fate? History repeats itself but only in form. It is predicted that new nations will form and old civilizations will collapse with transitions from agriculture to commerce, industry, and finance. Theories and inventions will stir human thought. However, humans will still have to adjust their instinctual responses over time and cannot be certain about the future.
Claude Henry Duvois, Count of St. Simon, divided history into two phases, organized and crisis. The organized period is when all human actions are regulated by a general theory while the crisis period is when society is only conflicted between individuals. St. Simon believed that socialism would create a new order stable and cooperative. Spangler on the other hand divided history into distinct civilizations each going through two stages centrial organization and centrifugal disintegration. Every civilization begins, develops, declines, and perishes.
Today, few accept the hypothesis that nations are formed from a social contract. Nations are formed when groups conquer each other, impose power on the losers, and establish decrees that become laws, creating a new social order. The success of a country depends on initiative and problem solving and creative capacity. The decline of a civilization is not due to physical limits but to failure in responding to crisis. Crises come from many causes. Drought, invasion, land overuse, changes in trade transportation. When wealth concentrates, civil war and social polarization arise, the government must distribute subsidies to the poor to avoid rebellion. As inequality increases, society will clearly divide between the educated rich and the uneducated poor. When education is universalized, belief in theology decreases and life becomes secular. However, if education cannot curb vices, society risks decline.
Nevertheless, nothing is absolute in progress. Greek civilization did not die but transformed into other cultures. People today inherit a rich cultural heritage. We have not only overcome past sufferings but also have the ability to learn and pass on valuable values to future generations. Civilization is not fixed. It recreates through generations, nurtured through education and creation. History proves that civilizational values endure despite ups and downs. Humans continue to create, learn, and pass on their heritage to the next generation.
Chapter 13. Does progress really exist?
Does progress really exist when looking at the rise and fall of nations, morality, and religion, making the concept of development vague? Is progress just the boast of each modern generation? Human nature does not change much through historical stages, and life's goals remain the same. Therefore, all technological progress is just new tools for old goals. Accumulating wealth, conquering the opposite sex, war and competition.
One of the disappointing discoveries of the 20th century is the neutrality of science. It can help kill as well as cure, sometimes destroying more than building. Progress in science and technology sometimes reduces physical endurance and moral values. Although humans have developed superior means of transportation, they are used to harm themselves. Medicine helps extend life but sometimes only prolongs a life of suffering. While improving living conditions for skilled workers, cities are still mired in slums.
Have humans built a strong natural moral foundation independent of religion to curb invasive and belligerent instincts? Democracy helps enhance intelligence and moral values. But many see human behavior worsening. Thoughts about abused freedom and the recognition that morality is merely human creation undermine faith in theology. Is there progress in philosophy since Confucious or in literature since Escilis? Modern music though complex is it deeper than ancient music? Modern architecture though bold can it compare to Egyptian and Greek temples? are paintings. Can they surpass the masterpieces of Van Ike or Holine? Though modernity has advances, some cultural fields cannot compare to ancient values.
Theoretically, if progress is understood as increased happiness, it cannot be proven that humans have truly progressed. Despite overcoming difficulties, humans can still be distressed. If progress is defined as increased ability to control the environment, then a nation can be seen as progressing when it has better control. History shows periods of decline, but as long as the present controls the environment better, that is progress. Each nation may progress or decline in different areas like the US developing technology but regressing in art.
When compared to primitive society, there is hope. The lowest classes today are no different from ancient barbarians, but millions have reached high levels of civility and morality. If high life expectancy indicates better environmental control, that is real progress. Compared to ancient people, modern nations have surpassing achievements in eliminating poverty, ensuring food, housing, and education. Democracy has protected freedoms, religious and intellectual freedom, and liberated women. Education is widely universalized, enhancing human understanding.
Today, humans are richer in cultural heritage than ever. These heritages continue from ancient Greece, the Renaissance, and the Enlightenment. If progress is real, it's not because humans are born better, but because they are surrounded by a richer culture. The more the cultural heritage elevates, the more humanity elevates. History is the formation, preservation and transmission of cultural heritage and education is the key to our progress. With the development of education, humans not only enhance intelligence but also develop creativity in society. Cultural heritage is not just available assets but must be passed on to future generations and that is the greatest achievement of this era.