psychology_of_the_unconscious_Carl Gustav Jung 01

An introduction to psychoanalysis and analytic psychology.

When Professor Freud of Vienna made his early discoveries in the realm of the neurosis and announced that the basis and origin of the various symptoms grouped under the terms hysteria and neurosis lay in unfulfilled desires and wishes, unexpressed and unknown to the patient for the most part, and concerned chiefly with the sexual instinct, it was not realized what far-reaching influence this unpopular and bitterly attacked theory would exert on the understanding of human life in general. For this theory has so widened in its scope that its application has now extended beyond a particular group of pathologic states. It has in fact led to a new evaluation of the whole conduct of human life. A new comprehension has developed which explains those things which formerly were unexplained. And there is offered an understanding not only of the symptoms of a neurosis and the phenomena of conduct but the product of the mind as expressed in myths and religions.

This amazing growth has proceeded steadily in an ever widening fashion despite opposition as violent as any of which we have knowledge in the past. The criticism originally directed towards the little understood and much disliked sexual conception now includes the further teachings of a psychology which by the application to it of such damning phrases as mystical, metaphysical and sacrilegious is condemned as unscientific. To add to the general confusion and misunderstanding surrounding this new school of thought, there has arisen a division amongst the leaders themselves. So that there now exists two schools led respectively by Professor Sigman Freud of Vienna and Dr. Carl Jung of Zurich referred to in the literature as the Vienna school and the Zurich school.

It is very easy to understand that criticism and opposition should develop against a psychology so difficult of comprehension and so disturbing to the ideas which have been held by humanity for ages. A psychology which furthermore requires a special technique as well as an observer trained to recognize and appreciate in psychologic phenomena a verification of the statement that there is no such thing as chance and that every act and every expression has its own meaning determined by the inner feelings and wishes of the individual. It is not a simple matter to come out boldly and state that every individual is to a large extent the determiner of his own destiny. For only by poets and philosophers has this idea been put forth, not by science. And it is a brave act to make this statement with full consciousness of all its meaning and to stand ready to prove it by scientific reasoning and procedure developed entirely through empirical investigation and through an analysis of individual cases.

Freudian psychology seems particularly to belong to that conception of Max Mueller's that an empirical acquaintance with facts rises to a scientific knowledge of facts as soon as the mind discovers beneath the multiplicity of single productions the unity of an organic system. Psychoanalysis is the name given to the method developed for reaching down into the hidden depths of the individual to bring to light the underlying motives and determinants of his symptoms and attitudes and to reveal the unconscious tendencies which lie behind actions and reactions and which influence development and determine the relations of life itself. The result of digging down into the hidden psyche has been to produce a mass of material from below the threshold of consciousness so astonishing and disturbing and out of relation with the previously held values as to arouse in any one unfamiliar with the process the strongest antagonism and criticism.

Although originally studied only as a therapeutic method for the sick, it was soon realized through an analysis of normal people, how light were the differences in the content of the unconscious of the sick and of the normal. The differences observed were seen to be rather in the reactions to life and to the conflicts produced by contending forces in the individual. These conflicts, usually not fully perceived by the individual and having to do with objectionable desires and wishes that are not in keeping with the conscious idea of self produce marked effects which are expressed either in certain opinions, prejudices, attitudes of conduct, faulty actions or in some definite pathologic symptom. As Dr. Jung says, "He who remains healthy has to struggle with the same complexes that cause the neurotic to fall ill."

In a valuable book called The Neighbor, written by the late Professor N. Shaylor of Harvard University, there occurs this very far-reaching statement. It is hardly too much to say that all the important errors of conduct, all the burdens of men or of societies are caused by the inadequacies in the association of the primal animal emotions with those mental powers which have been so rapidly developed in mankind. This statement reached by a process of reasoning and a method of thought and study entirely different from psychoanalysis nevertheless so completely expresses in brief form the very basis of the postulates developed through psychoanalysis that I quote it here. Such a statement made in the course of a general examination of human relations does not arouse opposition nor seem to be so difficult of acceptance. It appears to be the individual application of these conceptions that has roused such bitter antagonism and violent denunciations.

Rightly understood and used, psychoanalysis may be compared to surgery. For psychoanalysis stands in the same relation to the personality as surgery does to the body, and they aim at parallel results. It is well to recognize that in that last analysis, nature is the real physician, the healer of wounds. But prior to the development of our modern asepsis and surgical technique, the healing produced by nature was most often of a very faulty and imperfect type. Hideous scars, distorted and crippled limbs with functions impaired or incapacitated resulted from the wounds or else nature was unable to cope with the hurt and the injured one succumbed. Science has been steadily working for centuries with the aim of understanding nature and finding means to aid and cooperate with her so that healing could take place with the least possible loss of function or permanent injury to the individual. Marvelous results have rewarded these persistent efforts as the brilliant achievements of surgery plainly indicate.

Meanwhile, however, little thought was given to the possibility of any scientific method being available to help man overcome the wounds and conflicts taking place in his soul. Hurts which his development and progress as a personality, and which frequently in the struggle resulted in physical pains and symptoms of the most buried character that was left solely to religion and metaphysics. Now however this same assistance that surgery has given to the physical body psychoanalysis attempts to give to the personality that it cannot always succeed is as much to be expected and more than that surgery does not always succeed for the analytic work requires much of the individual. No real result can be attained if he has not already developed a certain quality of character and intelligence which makes it possible for him to submit himself to a facing of his naked soul and to the pain and suffering which this often entails. Fear as in no other relation in life and absolute truth and an absolute honesty are the only basis of action since deception of any kind deceives no one but the individual himself and acts as a boomerang defeating his own aims. Such deep searching and penetrating into the soul is not something to be undertaken lightly nor to be considered a trivial or simple matter. And the fact is that where a strong compulsion is lacking, such a sickness or a situation too difficult to meet, much courage is required to undertake it.

In order to understand this psychology which is pervading all realms of thought and seems destined to be a new psychological philosophical system for the understanding and practical advancement of human life, it will be necessary to go somewhat into detail regarding its development and present status. For in this new directionalized its greatest value and its greatest danger. The beginnings of this work were first published in 1895 in a book entitled Study and Uber Hysteria and contained the joint investigations into hysteria of Dr. Breuer of Vienna and his pupil Dr. Sigman Freud. The results of their investigation seemed to show that the various symptoms grouped under the title of hysteria were the result of emotionally colored reminiscences which all unknown to the conscious waking self were really actively expressing themselves through the surrogate form of symptoms and that these experiences although forgotten by the patient could be reproduced and the emotional content discharged. Hypnosis was the means used to enable the physician to penetrate deeply into the forgotten memories. For it was found through hypnosis that these lost incidents and circumstances were not really lost at all, but only dropped from consciousness and were capable of being revived when given the proper stimuli. The astonishing part about it was that with the revival of these memories and their accompanying painful and disturbing emotions, the symptoms disappeared. This led naturally to the conclusion that these symptoms were dependent upon some emotional disturbance or psychic trauma which had been inadequately expressed and that in order to cure the patient, one merely had to establish the connection between the memory and the emotions which properly belong to it, letting the emotion work itself out through a reproduction of the forgotten scene.

With further investigation, Freud found that hypnosis was unnecessary for the revival of the forgotten experiences and that it was possible to obtain the lost emotional material in the conscious and normal state. For this purpose, the patient was encouraged to assume a passive non-critical attitude and simply let his thoughts flow, speaking of whatever came into his mind, holding nothing back. During this free and easy discussion of his life and conditions directed by the law of association of ideas, reference was invariably made to the experiences or thoughts which were the most effective and disturbing elements. It was seen to be quite impossible to avoid this indirect revelation because of the strength of the emotions surrounding these ideas and the effect of the conscious wish to repress unpleasant feelings. This important group of ideas or impressions with the feelings and emotions clustered around them which are betrayed through this process was called by Jung a complex. However, with the touching of the complex which always contains feelings and emotions so painful or unpleasant as to be unacceptable to consciousness and which are therefore repressed and hidden, great difficulties appeared. For very often the patient came to a sudden stop and could apparently recall nothing more. Memory gaps were frequent relations twisted etc. Evidently some force banished these memories so that the person was quite honest in saying that he could remember nothing or that there was nothing to tell. This kind of forgetfulness was called repression and is the normal mechanism by which nature protects the individual from such painful feelings as are caused by unpleasant and unacceptable experiences and thoughts. The recognition of his egoistic nature and the often quite unbearable conflict of his weaknesses with his feelings of idealism.

At this early time, great attention was given towards developing a technique which would render more easy the reproduction of these forgotten memories. For with the abandonment of hypnosis, it was seen that some unknown active force was at work which not only banished painful memories and feelings but also prevented their return. This was called resistance. This resistance was found to be the important mechanism which interfered with the free flow of thought and produced the greatest difficulty in the further conduct of the analysis. It appeared under various guises and frequently manifested itself in intellectual objections based on reasoning ground in criticism directed towards the analyst or in criticism of the method itself and finally often in a complete blocking of expression so that until the resistance was broken nothing more could be produced. It was necessary then to find some aid by which these resistances could be overcome and the repressed memories and feelings revived and set free. For it was proven again and again that even though the person was not at all aware of concealing within himself some emotionally disturbing feeling or experience with which his symptoms were associated. Yet such was the fact and that under proper conditions this material could be brought into consciousness. This realm where these unknown but disturbing emotions were hidden was called the unconscious. The unconscious also being a name used arbitrarily to indicate all that material of which the person is not aware at the given time. The not conscious. This term is used very loosely in Freudian psychology and is not intended to provoke any academic discussion but to conform strictly to the dictionary classification of a negative concept which can neither be described nor defined. To say that an idea or feeling is unconscious merely means to indicate that the individual is unaware at that time of its existence or that all the material of which he is unaware at a given time is unconscious.

With the discovery of the significance in relation to hysteria of these varied experiences and forgotten memories which always led into the erotic realm and usually were carried far back into early childhood. The theory of an infantile sexual trauma as a cause of this neurosis developed. Contrary to the usual belief that children have no sexuality and that only at puberty does it suddenly arise, it was definitely shown that there was a very marked kind of sexuality among children of the most tender years, entirely instinctive and capable of producing a grave effect on the entire later life. However, further investigations carried into the lives of normal people disclosed quite as many psychic and sexual traumas in their early childhood as in the lives of the patients. Therefore, the conception of the infant sexual trauma as the etiological factor was abandoned in favor of the infantilism of sexuality itself. In other words, it was soon realized that many of the sexual traumas which were placed in their early childhood by these patients did not really exist except in their own fantasies and probably were produced as a defense against the memories of their own childish sexual activities. These experiences led to a deep investigation into the nature of the child's sexuality and developed the ideas which Freud incorporated in a work called Three Contributions to the Sexual Theory. He found so many variations and manifestations of sexual activity even among young children that he realized that this activity was the normal although entirely unconscious expression of the child's developing life and while not comparable to the adult sexuality nevertheless produced a very definite influence and effect on the child's life. These childish expressions of this instinct he called polymorphous perverse because in many ways they resembled in the various abnormalities called perversions when found among adults under certain conditions.

In the light of these additional investigations, Freud was led to change his formulation. For instead of the symptoms of the neurotic patient being due to definite sexual experiences, they seem to be determined by his reactions towards his own sexual constitution and the kind of repression to which these instincts were subjected. Perhaps one of the greatest sources of misunderstanding and difficulty in this whole subject lies in the term sexuality. For Freud's conception of this is entirely different from that of the popular sense. He conceived sexuality to be practically synonymous with the word love. And to include under this term all those tender feelings and emotions which have had their origin in a primitive erotic source, even if now their primary aim is entirely lost and another substituted for it. It must also be borne in mind that Freud strictly emphasizes the psychic side of sexuality and its importance as well as the somatic expression. Therefore, to understand Freud's theories, his very broad conception of the term sexual must never be forgotten.

Through this careful investigation of the psychic life of the individual, the tremendous influence and importance of fantasy for the fate was definitely shown. It was discovered that the indulgence in daydreams and fantasies was practically universal not only among children but among adults. That even whole lives were being lived out in a fantastic world created by the dreamer. A world wherein he could fulfill all those wishes and desires which were found to be too difficult or impossible to satisfy in the world of reality. Much of this fantasy thinking was seen to be scarcely conscious, but arose from unrealized wishes, desires, and strivings which could only express themselves through veiled symbols in the form of fantastic structures not understood nor fully recognized. Indeed, it is perhaps one of the most common human experiences to find queer thoughts, undesired ideas and images forcing themselves upon one's attention to such an extent that the will has to be employed to push them out of mind. It is not unusual to discover long-forgotten impressions of childhood, assuming a fantastic shape and memory, and dwelt upon as though they were still of importance. This material afforded a rich field for the searches into the soul. For through the operation of the law of association of ideas, these fantastic products traced back to their origin revealed the fact that instead of being meaningless or foolish, they were produced by a definite process and arose from distinct wishes and desires which unconsciously veiled themselves in these mysterious forms and pictures.

It is conceded that the most completely unconscious product of an individual is his dream. And therefore, Professor Freud turned his attention from fantasies and daydreams to the investigation of the nightly dreams of his patients to discover whether they would throw light upon the painful feelings and ideas repressed out of consciousness and therefore inaccessible to direct revelation. This brilliant idea soon led to a rich fruit-bearing, for it became evident that contrary to the usual conception that the dream is a fantastic and absurd jumble of heterogeneous fragments having no real relation to the life of the individual, it is full of meaning. In fact, it is usually concerned with the problem of life most pressing at the time, which expresses itself not directly but in symbolic form so as to be unrecognized. In this way, the individual gains an expression and fulfillment of his unrealized wish or desire. This discovery of the symbolic nature of the dream and the fantasy was brought about entirely through the associative method and developed empirically through investigations of the dreams of many people. In this manner, it became evident that certain ideas and objects which recurred again and again in the dreams and fantasies of different people were definitely associated with certain unconscious or unrecognized wishes and desires and were repeatedly used by the mind to express these meanings where direct form was repressed and unallowed. Thus, certain dream expressions and figures were in a general way considered to be rather definite symbols of these repressed ideas and feelings found in the unconscious.

Through comparative and parallel study, it soon appeared that there was a similar mechanism at work in myths and fairy tales, and that the relationship between the dreams and fantasies of an individual, and the myths and folktales of a people was so close that Abraham could say that the myth is a fragment of the infantile soul life of the race, and the dream is the myth of the individual. Thus, through relating his dreams, the patient himself furnished the most important means of gaining access to the unconscious and disturbing complexes with which his symptoms were connected. Besides the dream analysis, the patient furnished other means of revelation of his complexes, his mannerisms and unconscious acts, his opening remarks to his physician, his emotional reactions to certain ideas. In short, the whole behavior and verbal expressions of the individual reveal his inner nature and problems.

Through all this work, it became clear that in the emotional nature lay the origin not only of the various nervous illnesses themselves, but also of the isolated symptoms and individual idiosyncrasies and peculiarities which are the part of all humanity. And that the pathogenic cause of the disturbances lies not in the ignorance of individuals but in those inner resistances which are the underlying basis of this ignorance. Therefore, the aim of the therapy became not merely the relief of the ignorance but the searching out and combating of these resistances. It becomes evident from even this brief description of the analytic procedure that we are dealing with a very complex and delicate material and with the technique which needs to make definite use of all influences available for the help of the patient. It has long been recognized that the relation established between physician and patient has a great effect upon the medical assistance which he is able to render. In other words, if a confidence and personal regard developed in the patient towards the physician, the latter's advice was just so much more efficacious. This personal feeling has been frankly recognized and made of distinct service in psychoanalytic treatment under the name of transference. It is through the aid of this definite relationship which must be established in the one being analyzed towards the analyst that it is possible to deal with the unconscious and organized resistances which so easily blind the individual and render the acceptance of the new valuations very difficult to the raw and sensitive soul.

Freud's emphasis upon the role of the sexual instinct in the production of the neurosis and also in its determining power upon the personality of the normal individual does not imply that he does not also recognize other determinants at the root of human conduct as for instance the instinct for preservation of life and the ego principle itself. But these motives are not so violently forbidden and repressed as the sexual impulse. And therefore because of that repressive force and the strength of the impulse he considers this primary in its influence upon the human being. The importance of this instinct upon human life is clearly revealed by the great place given to it under the name of love in art, literature, poetry, romance and all beauty from the beginning of recorded time. Viewed in this light. It cannot seem extraordinary that a difficulty or disturbance in this emotional field should produce such far-reaching consequences for the individual. The sexual impulse is often compared with that of hunger and this craving and need line in all humanity is called by Freud libido.

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Section two of Psychology of the Unconscious by Carl Jung. This LibriVox recording is in the public domain.

Section two, the Edipus problem.

With further investigations into the nature of the repressed complexes, a very astonishing situation was revealed. The parental influence on children is something so well recognized and understood that to call attention to it sounds much like a banality. However, here an extraordinary discovery was made for in tracing out the feelings and emotions of adults. It became evident that this influence was paramount not only for children but for adults as well. That the entire direction of lives was largely determined quite unconsciously by the parental associations. And that although adults the emotional side of their nature was still infantile in type and demanded unconsciously the infantile or childish relations.

Freud traces out the commencement of the infantile attachment for the parents in this wise. In the beginning, the child derives its first satisfaction and pleasure from the mother in the form of nutrition and care for its wants. In this first act of suckling, for it sees already a kind of sexual pleasure, for he apparently identifies the pleasure principle and the sexual instinct, and considers that the former is primarily rooted in the latter. At this early time commence such various infantile actions unconnected with nutrition as thumb sucking, various movements of the body as rubbing, boring, pulling, and other manifestations of a definite interest in its own body, a delight in nakedness, the pleasure exhibited in inflicting pain on some object and its opposite, the pleasure from receiving pain. All of these afford the child pleasure and satisfaction, and because they seem analogous to certain perversions in adults, they are called by Freud the polymorphous perverse sexuality of childhood. The character of these instinctive actions, which have nothing to do with any other person, and through which the child attains pleasure from its own body, caused for it to turn this phase of life as autoerotic after Havlock Ellis.

However, with the growth of the child, there is a parallel development of the psychic elements of its sexual nature. And now the mother, the original object of its love, primarily determined by its helplessness and need, acquires a new valuation. The beginnings of the need for a love object to satisfy the craving or libido of the child are early in evidence and following along sex lines in general. The little son prefers the mother and the daughter the father after the usual preference of the parents. At this early time, children feel deeply the enormous importance of their parents and their entire world is bounded by the family circle. All the elements of the ego which the child possesses have now become manifest, love, jealousy, curiosity, hate, etc. And those instincts are directed in the greatest degree towards the objects of their libido, namely the parents.

With the growing ego of the child, there is a development of strong wishes and desires demanding satisfaction which can only be gratified by the mother. Therefore, there is aroused in the small son the feeling of jealousy and anger towards the father in whom he sees a rival for the affection of the mother and whom he would like to replace. This desire in the soul of the child for it calls the Edipus complex in recognition of its analogy to the tragedy of King Edipus who was drawn by his fate to kill his father and win his mother for a wife. Freud presents this as the nuclear complex of every neurosis. At the basis of this complex, some trace of which can be found in every person, Freud sees a definite incest wish towards the mother, which only lacks the quality of consciousness. Because of moral reactions, this wish is quickly subjected to repression through the operation of the incest barrier, a postulate he compares to the incest taboo found among inferior peoples.

At this time, the child is beginning to develop its typical sexual curiosity expressed in the question, "Where do I come from?" The interest and investigation of the child into this problem, aided by observations and deductions from various actions and attitudes of the parents who have no idea of the watchfulness of the child, lead him because of his imperfect knowledge and immature development into many false theories and ideas of birth. These infantile sexual theories are held by Freud to be determinative in the development of the child's character and also for the contents of the unconscious as expressed in a future neurosis. These various reactions of the child and his sexual curiosity are entirely normal and unavoidable. And if his development proceeds in an orderly fashion, then at the time of definite object choice, he will pass smoothly over from the limitations of the family attachment out into the world and find therein his independent existence.

However, if the libido remains fixed on the first chosen object, so that the growing individual is unable to tear himself loose from these familial ties, then the incestuous bond is deepened with the developing sexual instinct, and its accompanying need of a love object, and the entire future of the young personality endangered. For with the development of the incestuous bond, the natural repressions deepen because the moral censor cannot allow these disturbing relations to become clear to the individual. Therefore, the whole matter is repressed more deeply into the unconscious, and even a feeling of positive enmity and repulsion towards the parents is often developed in order to conceal and overcompensate for the impossible situation actually present. This persistence of the attachment of the libido to the original object and the inability to find in this a suitable satisfaction for the adult need interferes with the normal development of the psychosexual character. And it is due to this that the adult retains that infantilism of sexuality which plays so great a role in determining the instability of the emotional life which so frequently leads into the definite neurosis.

These were the conclusions reached and the ground on which Freudian psychology rested regarding the etiology of the neurosis and the tendencies underlying normal human mechanisms when Dr. Carl Jung, the most prominent of Freud's disciples and the leader of the Zurich school, found himself no longer able to agree with Freud's findings in certain particulars. Although the phenomena which Freud observed and the technique of psychoanalysis developed by Freud were the material on which Jung worked and the value of which he clearly emphasizes, the differences which have developed lay in his understanding and interpretation of the phenomena observed, beginning with the conception of libido itself as a term used to connote sexual hunger and craving, albeit the meaning of the word sexual was extended by Freud to embrace a much wider significance than common usage has assigned it. Jung was unable to confine himself to this limitation. He conceived this longing, this urge or push of life as something extending beyond sexuality, even in its wider sense. He saw in the term libido a concept of unknown nature comparable to Bergson's vital a hypothetical energy of life which occupies itself not only in sexuality but in various physiological and psychological manifestations such as growth, development, hunger and all the human activities and interests. This cosmic energy or urge manifested in the human being he calls libido and compares it with the energy of physics. Although recognizing in common with Freud, as well as with many others, the primal instinct of reproduction as the basis of many functions and present-day activities of mankind, no longer sexual in character, he repudiates the idea of still calling them sexual, even though their development was a growth originally out of the sexual sexuality and its various manifestations. Jung sees as most important channels occupied by libido, but but not the exclusive ones through which libido flows. This is an energetic concept of life. And from this viewpoint, this hypothetical energy of life or libido is a living power used instinctively by man in all the automatic processes of his functioning. Such very processes being but different manifestations of this energy. By virtue of its quality of mobility and change, man through his understanding and intelligence has the power consciously to direct and use his libido in definite and desired ways. In this conception of Jung will be seen an analogy to Bergson who speaks of this change, this movement and becoming, this self-creation, call it what you will, as the very stuff and reality of our being.

Developing the energetic conception of libido and separating it from Freud's sexual definition, Jung makes possible the explanation of interest in general and provides a working concept by which not only the specifically sexual but the general activities and reactions of man can be understood. If a person complains of no longer having interest in his work or of losing interest in his surroundings, then one understands that his libido is withdrawn from this object and that in consequence the object itself seems no longer attractive. Whereas, as a matter of fact, the object itself is exactly the same as formerly. In other words, it is the libido that we bestow upon an object that makes it attractive and interesting. The causes for the withdrawal of libido may be various and are usually quite different from those that the persons offer in explanation. It is the task of psychoanalysis to discover the real reasons which are usually hidden and unknown. On the other hand, when an individual exhibits an exaggerated interest or places an overemphasis upon an idea or situation, then we know there is too much libido here and that we may find as a consequence a corresponding depletion elsewhere.

This leads directly into the second point of difference between Jung's views and those of Freud. This is concerned with those practically universal childish manifestations of sexuality called by Freud polymorphous perverse because of their similarity to those abnormalities of sexuality which occur in adults and are called perversions. Jung takes exception to this viewpoint. He sees in the various manifestations of childhood the precursors or forerunners of the later fully developed sexuality. And instead of considering them perverse, he considers them preliminary expressions of sexual coloring. He divides human life into three stages. The first stage up to about the third or fourth year. Generally speaking, he calls the pre-sexual stage. For there he sees the libido or life energy occupied chiefly in the function of nutrition and growth. And he draws an analogy between this period and that of the caterpillar stage of the butterfly. The second stage includes the years from this time until puberty and this he speaks of as the pre-pubertal stage. The third period is that from puberty onward and can be considered the time of maturity. It is in the earliest stage, the period of which varies greatly in different individuals that are fully inaugurated those various manifestations which have so marked a sexual coloring that there can be no question of their relationship. Although at that time sexuality in the adult meaning of the word does not exist. Jung explains the polymorphism of these phenomena as arising from a gradual movement of the libido from exclusive service in the function of nutrition into new avenues which successively open up with the development of the child until the final inauguration of the sexual function proper at puberty.

Normally these childish bad habits are gradually relinquished until the libido is entirely withdrawn from these immature phases and with the ushering in of puberty for the first time appears in the form of an undifferentiated sexual primitive power clearly forcing the individual towards division, budding, etc. However, if in the course of its movement from the function of nutrition to the sexual function, the libido is arrested or at any phase, then a fixation may result creating a disturbance in the harmony of the normal development. For although the libido is and remains clinging to some childish manifestation, time goes on and the physical growth of the child does not stand still. Soon a great contrast is created between the infantile manifestations of the emotional life and the needs of the more adult individual and the foundation is thus prepared for either the development of a definite neurosis or else for those weaknesses of character or symptomatic disturbances which are not sufficiently serious to be called a neurosis.

One of the most active and important forms of childish libido occupation is in fantasy making the child's world is one of imagery and make-believe where he can create for himself. That satisfaction and enjoyment which the world of reality so often denies. As the child grows in real demands of life are made upon him, it becomes increasingly necessary that his libido be taken away from his fantastic world and used for the required adaptation to reality needed by his age and condition until finally for the adult the freedom of the whole libido is necessary to meet the biological and cultural demands of life. Instead of thus employing the libido in the real world, however, certain people never relinquish the seeking for satisfaction in the shadowy world of fantasy. And even though they make certain attempts at adaptation, they are halted and discouraged by every difficulty and obstacle in the path of life and are easily pulled back into their inner psychic world. This condition is called a state of introversion. It is concerned with the past and the reminiscences which belong there too. Situations and experiences which should have been completed and finished long ago are still dwelt upon and lived with. Images and matters which were once important but which normally have no significance for their later age are still actively influencing their present lives. The nature and character of these fantasy products are legion and are easily recognized in the emotional attitudes and pretensions, the childish illusions and exaggerations, the prejudices and inconsistencies which people express in manifold forms. The actual situation is inadequately faced. Small matters are reacted towards in an exaggerated manner or else a frivolous attitude is maintained where real seriousness is demanded. In other words, there is clearly manifested an inadequate psychic adaptation towards reality which is quite to be expected from the child but which is very discordant in the adult.

The most important of these past influences is that of the parents because they are the first objects of the developing childish love and afford the first satisfaction and pleasure to the child. They become the models for all succeeding efforts as Freud has worked out. This he called the nuclear or root complex because this influence was so powerful it seemed to be the determining factor in all later difficulties in the life of the individual. In this phase of the problem lies the third great difference between Jung's interpretation of the observed phenomena and that of Freud. Jung definitely recognizes that there are many neurotic persons who clearly exhibited in their childhood the same neurotic tendencies that are later exaggerated. Also that an almost overwhelming effect on the destiny of these children is exercised by the influence of the parents, the frequent overanxiety or tenderness, the lack of sympathy or understanding. In other words, the complexes of the parent reacting upon the child and producing in him love, admiration, fear, distrust, hate, revolt. The greater the sensitiveness and impressionability of the child, the more he will be stamped with the familial environment, and the more he will unconsciously seek to find again in the world of reality, the model of his own small world, with all the pleasures and satisfactions or disappointments and unhappinesses with which it was filled. This condition to be sure is not a recognized or a conscious one. For the individual may think himself perfectly free from this past influence because he is living in the real world and because actually there is a great difference between the present conditions and that of his childish past. He sees all this intellectually but there is a wide gap between the intellectual grasp of a situation and the emotional development and it is the latter realm wherein lies the disharmony.

However, although many ideas and feelings are connected with the parents, analysis reveals very often that they are only subjective and that in reality they bear little resemblance to the actual past situation. Therefore, Jung speaks no longer of the real father and mother, but he uses the term imago or image to represent the father or mother because the feelings and fantasies frequently do not deal with the real parents, but with the distorted and subjective image created by the imagination of the individual. Following this distinction, Jung sees in the Edipus complex of Freud only a symbol for the childish desire towards the parents and for the conflict which this craving evokes and cannot accept the theory that in this early stage of childhood the mother has any real sexual significance for the child. The demands of the child upon the mother, the jealousy so often exhibited are at first connected with the role of the mother as protector, caretaker, and supplier of nutritive wants. And only later with a germinating eroticism does the child's love become admixed with the developing sexual quality. The chief love objects are still the parents and he naturally continues to seek and to find in them satisfaction for all his desires. In this way the typical conflict is developed which in the son is directed towards the father and in the daughter towards the mother. This jealousy of the daughter towards the mother is called the Electra complex from the myth of Electra who took revenge on her mother for the murder of her husband because she was in this way deprived of her father.

Normally as puberty is attained the child gradually becomes more or less freed from his parents and upon the degree in which this is accomplished depends his health and future well-being. This demand of nature upon the young individual to free himself from the bonds of his childish dependency and to find in the world of reality his independent existence is so imperious and dominating that it frequently produces in the child the greatest struggles and severest conflicts the period being characterized symbolically as a self-sacrifice by Jung. It frequently happens that the young person is so closely bound in the family relations that it is only with the greatest difficulty that he can attain any measure of freedom and then only very imperfectly. So that the libido sexualis can only express itself in certain feelings and fantasies which clearly reveal the existence of the complex until then entirely hidden and unrealized. Now commences the secondary struggle against the unfulfilled and immoral feelings with a consequent development of intense resistances expressing themselves in irritation, anger, revolt, and antagonism against the parents or else in an especially tender submissive and yielding attitude which overcompensates for the rebellion and reaction held within. His struggle and conflict gives rise to the unconscious fantasy of self-sacrifice, which really means the sacrificing of the childish tendencies and love type in order to free libido. For his nature demands that he attain the capacity for the accomplishment of his own personal fulfillment, the satisfaction of which belongs to the developed man and woman. This conception has been worked out in detail by Jung in the book which is herein presented to English readers.

We now come to the most important of Jung's conceptions in that it bears practically upon the treatment of certain types of the neurosis and stands theoretically in direct opposition to Freud's hypothesis. While recognizing fully the influence of the parents and of the sexual constitution of the child, Jung refuses to see in this infantile past the real cause for the later development of the illness. He definitely places the cause of a pathogenic conflict in the present moment and considers that in seeking for the cause in the distant past, one is only following the desire of the patient which is to withdraw himself as much as possible from the present important period. The conflict is produced by some important task or duty which is essentially biologically and practically for the fulfillment of the ego of the individual but before which an obstacle arises from which he shrinks and thus halted cannot go on. With this interference in the path of progression, libido is stored up and a regression takes place whereby there occurs a reanimation of past ways of libido occupation which were entirely normal to the child but which for the adult are no longer of value. These regressive infantile desires and fantasies now alive and striving for satisfaction are converted into symptoms and in these surrogate forms obtain a certain gratification thus creating the external manifestations of the neurosis.

Therefore, Jung does not ask from what psychic experience or point of fixation in childhood the patient is suffering, but what is the present duty or task he is avoiding or what obstacle in his life's path he is unable to overcome. What is the cause of his regression to past psychic experiences? Following this theory, Jung expresses the view that the elaborate fantasies and dreams produced by these patients are really forms of compensation or artificial substitutes for the unfulfilled adaptation to reality. The sexual content of these fantasies and dreams is only apparently and not actually expressive of a real sexual desire or incest wish, but is a regressive employment of sexual forms to symbolically express a present-day need when the attainment of the present ego demand seems too difficult or impossible and no adaptation is made to what is possible for the individual's capability. With this statement, Jung throws a new light on the work of analytic psychology and on the conception of the neurotic symptoms and renders possible of understanding the many apparent incongruities and conflicting observations which have been so disturbing to the critics.

It now becomes proper to ask what has been established by all this massive investigation into the soul and what is its value not only as a therapeutic measure for the neurotic sufferer but also for the normal human being. First, and perhaps most important, is the recognition of a definite psychological determinism. Instead of human life being filled with foolish, meaningless, or purposeless actions, errors, and thoughts, it can be demonstrated that no expression or manifestation of the psyche, however trifling or inconsistent in appearance, is really lawless or unmotivated. Only a possession of the technique is necessary in order to reveal to anyone desirous of knowing the existence of the unconscious determinants of his mannerisms, trivial expressions, acts and behavior, their purpose and significance.

This leads into the second fundamental conception which is perhaps even less considered than the foregoing and that is the relative value of the conscious mind and thought. It is the general attitude of people to judge themselves by their surface notice. To satisfy themselves by saying or thinking "this is what I want to do" or say, "I intended to do thus and so," but somehow what one thought, what intended to say or expected to do is very often the contrary of what actually is said or done. Everyone has had these experiences when the gap between the conscious thought and action was gross enough to be observed. It is also a well-known experience to consciously desire something very much and when it is obtained to discover that this in no way satisfied or lessened the desire which was then transferred to some other object. Thus one became cognizant of the fact that the feeling and idea presented by consciousness as the desire was an error. What is the difficulty in these conditions? Evidently some other directing force than that of which we are aware is at work. Dr. G. Stanley Hall uses a very striking symbol when he compares the mind to an iceberg floating in the ocean with 1/8 visible above the water and 7/8s below. The 1/8 above being that part called conscious and the 7/8 below that which we call the unconscious. The influence and controlling power of their unconscious desires over our thoughts and acts are in this relative proportion. Faint glimmers of other motives and interests than those we accept or which we believe often flit into consciousness. These indications, if studied or valued accurately, would lead to the realization that consciousness is but a single stage and but one form of expression of mind. Therefore, its dictum is but one often untrustworthy approach to the great question as to what is man's actual psychic accomplishment and as to what in particular is the actual sole development of the individual.

A further contribution of equal importance has been the empiric development of a dynamic theory of life. The conception that life is in a state of flux, movement, leading either to construction or destruction. Through the development man has reached, he has attained the power by means of his intelligence and understanding of definitely directing to a certain extent this life energy or libido into avenues which serve his interest and bring a real satisfaction for the present.

day. When man through ignorance and certain inherent tendencies fails to recognize his needs or his power to fulfill them or to adapt himself to the conditions of reality of the present time, there is then produced that reanimation of infantile paths by which an attempt is made to gain fulfillment or satisfaction through the production of symptoms or attitudes.

The acceptance of these statements demands the recognition of the existence of an infantile sexuality and the large part played by it in the later life of the individual. Because of the power and imperious influence exerted by the parents upon the child, and because of the unconscious attachment of his libido to the original object, the mother, and the perseverance of this first love model in the psyche, he finds it very difficult on reaching the stage of adult development and the time for seeking a love object outside of the family to gain a satisfactory model.

It is exceedingly important for parents and teachers to recognize the requirements of nature which beginning with puberty imperiously demand of the young individual a separation of himself from the parent stem and the development of an independent existence. In our complex modern civilization, this demand of nature is difficult enough of achievement for the child who has the heartiest and most intelligent cooperation of his parents and environment, but for the one who has not only to contend with his own inner struggle for his freedom, but has in addition the resistance of his parents who would hold him in his childhood at any cost because they cannot endure the thought of his separation from them. The task becomes one of the greatest magnitude.

It is during this period when the struggle between the childish inertia and nature's urge becomes so keen that there occur the striking manifestations of jealousy, criticism, irritability, all usually directed against the parents, of defiance, of parental authority, of runaways and various other psychic and nervous disorders known to all. This struggle which is the first great task of mankind and the one which requires the greatest effort is that which is expressed by Yung as the self-sacrifice motive. The sacrifice of the childish feelings and demands and of the irresponsibility of this period and the assumption of the duties and tasks of an individual existence.

It is this great theme which Jung sees as the real motive lying hidden in the myths and religions of man from the beginning as well as in the literature and artistic creations of both ancient and modern time in which he works out with the greatest wealth of detail and painstaking effort in the book herewith presented. This necessitates a recognition and re-evaluation of the enormous importance and influence of the ego and the sexual instinct upon the thought and reaction of man and also predicates a displacement of the psychological point of gravity from the will and intellect to the realm of the emotions and feelings. The desired end is a synthesis of these two paths or the use of the intellect constructively in the service of the emotions in order to gain for the best interest of the individual some sort of cooperative reaction between the two.

No one dealing with analytic psychology can fail to be struck by the tremendous and unnecessary burdens which man has placed upon himself and how greatly he has increased the difficulties of adaptation by his rigid intellectual views and moral formulas and by his inability to admit to himself that he is actually just a human being imperfect and containing within himself all manner of tendencies good and bad. All striving, for some satisfactory goal. Further, that the refusal to see himself in this light instead of as an ideal person in no way alters the actual condition, and that in fact through the cheap pretense of being able only to consider himself as a very virtuous person, or as Shaken Hurt when observing the sins of others, he actually is prevented from developing his own character and bringing his own capacities to their fullest expressions.

There is frequently expressed among people the idea of how fortunate it is that we cannot see each other's thoughts and how disturbing it would be if our real feelings could be read. But what is so shameful in these secrets of the soul? They are in reality our own egoistic desires. All striving, longing, wishing for satisfaction, for happiness. Those desires which instinctively crave their own gratification, but which can only be really fulfilled by adapting them to the real world and to the social group.

Why is it that it is so painful for man to admit that the prime influence in all human endeavor is found in the ego itself in its desires, wishes, needs, and satisfactions, in short, in its need for self-expression and self-perpetuation, the evolutionary impetus in life. The basis for the unpleasantness of this idea may perhaps be found in an inner resistance in nature itself which forces man to include others in his scheme, lest his own greedy desires should serve to destroy him. But even with this inner demand in all the ethical and moral teachings of centuries, it is everywhere evident that man has only very imperfectly learned that it is to his own interest to consider his neighbor, and that it is impossible for him to ignore the needs of the body social of which he is a part.

Externally, the recognition of the strength of the ego impulse is objectionable because of the ideal conception that self-striving and so-called selfish seeking are unworthy, ignoble, and incompatible with a desirable character and must be ignored at all cost. The futility of this attitude is to be clearly seen in the failure after all these centuries to even approximate it as evidenced in our human relations and institutions and is quite as ineffectual in this realm as in that of sexuality where the effort to overcome this imperious domination has been attempted by lowering the instinct and seeing in it something vile or unclean, something unspeakable and unholy. Instead of destroying the power of sexuality, this struggle has only warped and distorted, injured and mutilated the expression. For not without destruction of the individual can these fundamental instincts be destroyed.

Life itself has needs and imperiously demands expression through the forms created. All nature answers to this freely and simply except man. His failure to recognize himself as an instrument through which the life energy is coursing and the demands of which must be obeyed is the cause of his misery. Despite his possession of intellect and self-consciousness, he cannot without disaster to himself, refuse the tasks of life and the fulfillment of his own needs.

Man's great task is the adaptation of himself to reality and the recognition of himself as an instrument for the expression of life according to his individual possibilities. It is in his privilege as a self-creator that his highest purpose is found. The value of self-consciousness lies in the fact that man is unable to reflect upon himself and learn to understand the true origin and significance of his actions and opinions that he may adequately value the real level of his development and avoid being self-deceived and therefore inhibited from finding his biological adaptation. He need no longer be unconscious of the motives underlying his actions or hide himself behind a changed exterior. In other words, be merely a series of reactions to stimuli as the mechanists have it but he may to a certain extent become a self-creating and self-determining being indeed there seems to be an impulse towards adaptation quite as Bergson sees it and it would seem to be a task of the highest order to use intelligence to assist oneself to work with this impulse through the investigation of these different avenues leading into the hidden depths of the human being and through the revelation of the motives and influences at work there.

Although astonishing to the uninitiated, a very clear and definite conception of the actual human relationship, brotherhood of all mankind is obtained. It is this recognition of these common factors basically inherent in humanity from the beginning and still active which is at once both the most hopeful and the most feared and disliked part of psychoanalysis. It is disliked by those individuals who have prided themselves upon their superiority and the distinction between their reactions and motives and those of ordinary mankind. In other words, they attempt to become personalities through elevating themselves in lowering others. And it is a distinct blow to discover that beneath these pretensions lie the very ordinary elements shared in common by all.

On the other hand, to those who have been able to recognize their own weaknesses, have suffered in the privacy of their own souls, the knowledge that these things have not set them apart from others, but that they are the common property of all, and that no one can point the finger of scorn at his fellow is one of the greatest experiences of life, and is productive of the greatest relief. It is feared by many who realize that in these painfully acquired repressions and symptoms lie their safety and their protection from directly facing and dealing with tendencies and characteristics with which they feel unable to cope. The repression and the accompanying symptoms indicate a difficulty in a struggle and in this way are a sort of compromise or substitute formation which permit although only in a wasteful and feudal manner the activity of the repressed tendencies.

Nevertheless, to analyze the individual back to his original tendencies and reveal to him the meaning of these substitute formations would be a useless procedure in which truly the last state of that man would be worse than the first if the work ceased there. The aim is not to destroy those barriers upon which civilized man has so painfully climbed and reduce him to his primitive state, but where these have failed or imperfectly succeeded to help him to attain his greatest possibilities with less expenditure of energy by less wasteful methods than nature provides. In this achievement lies the hopeful and valuable side of this method, the development of the synthesis. It is hopeful because now a way is opened to deal with these primitive tendencies constructively and render their effects not only harmless but useful by utilizing them in higher aims socially and individually valuable and satisfactory.

This is what has occurred normally in those individuals who seem capable and constructive personalities. In those creative minds that give so much to the race, they have converted certain psychological tendencies which could have produced useless symptoms or destructive actions into valuable productions. Indeed, it is not uncommon for strong, capable persons to state themselves that they knew they could have been equally capable of a wasteful or destructive life. This utilization of the energy or libido freed by removing the repressions and the lifting of infantile tendencies and desires into higher purposes and directions suitable for the individual at his present status is called sublimation.

It must not be understood by this discussion that geniuses or wonderful personalities can be created through analysis for this is not the aim of the procedure. Its purpose is to remove the inhibitions and restrictions which interfere with the full development of the personality to help individuals attain to that level where they really belong and to prepare people to better understand and meet life whether they are neurotic sufferers or so-called normal people with the difficulties and peculiarities which belong to all.

This reasoning and method of procedure is only new when the application is made to the human being in all improvements of plants and animals. These general principles have been recognized and their teachings constructively utilized. Luther Burbank that plant wizard whose work is known to all the world says a knowledge of the battle of the tendencies within a plant is the very basis of all plant improvement. And it is not that the work of plant improvement brings with it incidentally as people mistakenly think a knowledge of these forces. It is the knowledge of these forces rather which makes plant improvement possible. Has this not been also the mistake of man regarding himself and the cause partly least of his failure to succeed in actually reaching a more advanced and stable development?

This recognition of man's biological relationship to all life and the practical utilization of this recognition necessitates a readjustment of thought and asks for an examination and reconsideration of the facts of human conduct which are observable by any thoughtful person acquired and progressive upheaval of old ideas has taken place and is still going on. Analytic psychology attempts to unify and value all of the various phenomena of man which have been observed and noted at different times by isolated investigators of isolated manifestations and thus bring some orderly sequence into the whole. It offers a method whereby the relations of the human being biologically to all other living forms can be established. The actual achievement of man himself adequately valued and opens a vista of the possibilities of improvement in health, happiness and accomplishment for the human being. Beatatric M. Henle end of section two.

Section three of psychology of the unconscious by Carl Jung. This LibriVox recording is in the public domain. Section three, author's introductories. Author's note. My task in this work has been to investigate an individual fantasy system, and in the doing of it, problems of such magnitude have been uncovered that my endeavor to grasp them in their entirety has necessarily meant only a superficial orientation toward those paths, the opening and exploration of which may possibly crown the work of future investigators with success. I'm not in sympathy with the attitude which favors the repression of certain possible working hypotheses because they are perhaps erroneous and so may possess no lasting value. Certainly I endeavored as far as possible to guard myself from error which might indeed become especially dangerous upon these dizzy heights for I'm entirely aware of the risks of these investigations. However, I do not consider scientific work as a dogmatic contest, but rather as a work done for the increase and deepening of knowledge. This contribution is addressed to those having similar ideas concerning science. In conclusion, I must render thanks to those who have assisted my endeavors with valuable aid, especially my dear wife and my friends to disinterested assistance I am deeply indebted. Zurich CG Yung quotation from Googlmo Ferrero. Therefore, theory which gives to facts their value and significance is often very useful even if it is partially false. For it throws light on phenomena which no one observed. It forces an examination from many angles of facts which no one had hitherto studied and it gives the impulsive for more extended and more productive researches. It is therefore a moral duty for the man of science to expose himself to the risk of committing error and to submit to criticism in order that science may continue to progress. A writer has attacked the author for this very severely, saying, "Here is a scientific ideal very limited and very poulry. But those who are endowed with a mind sufficiently serious and impersonal as not to believe that all that they write is the expression of truth absolute and eternal approve of this theory which places the aims of science well above the miserable vanity and poultry. Amu Popra of the scientist. Ulommo forever. Lewis lose symbolisma 1895 preface page 8 part one introduction anyone who can read Freud's interpretation of the dream without scientific rebellion at the newness and apparently unjustified daring of its analytical presentation and without moral indignation at the astonishing nudity of the dream interpretation and who can allow this unusual ual array of facts to influence his mind calmly and without prejudice will surely be deeply impressed at that place where Freud calls to mind the fact that an individual psychologic conflict namely the incest fantasy is the essential root of that powerful ancient dramatic material the Edipus legend the impression made by this simple reference may be likened to that holy peculiar feeling which arises in us if for example in the noise and tumold of a modern street. We should come across an ancient relic, the Corinthian capital of the Walden column, or a fragment of inscription. Just a moment ago, we were given over to the noisy ephemeral life of the present, when something very far away and strange appears to us, which turns our attention to things of another order, a glimpse away from the incoherent multiplicity of the present, to a higher coherence in history. Very likely it would suddenly occur to us that on this spot where we now run busily to and fro, a similar life and activity prevailed 2,000 years ago in somewhat other forms. Similar passions moved mankind, and man was likewise convinced of the uniqueness of his existence. I would liken the impression which the first acquaintance with the monuments of antiquity so easily leaves behind to that impression which Freud's reference to the Edipus legend makes. For while we are still engaged with the confusing impressions of the variability of the individual soul, suddenly there is opened of revelation of the simple greatness of the Edipus tragedy that never extinguished light of the Grecian theater. This breadth of outlook carries in itself something of revelation for us. The ancient psychology has long since been buried among the shadows of the past. In the schoolroom, one could scarcely repress a skeptical smile when one indiscreetly reckoned the comfortable matronly age of Penelope and the age of Joe Casta and comically compared the result of the reckoning with the tragic erotic struggles in the legend and drama. We did not know at that time and who knows even today that the mother can be the all-consuming passion of the son which perhaps undermines his whole life and tragically destroys it so that not even the magnitude of the edipus fate seems one jot overdrawn. Rare and pathologically understood cases like non dlo and her son lie too far removed from most of us to give a living impression. But when we follow the paths traced out by Freud, we arrive at a recognition of the present existence of such possibilities, which although they are too weak to enforce incest, are still strong enough to cause disturbances of considerable magnitude in the soul. The admission of such possibilities to oneself does not occur without a great burst of moral revulsion. Resistances arise which only too easily dazzle the intellect and through that make knowledge of self impossible. Whenever we succeed, however, in stripping feelings from more scientific knowledge, then that abyss which separates our age from the antique is bridged, and with astonishment we see that Edipus is still a living thing for us. The importance of such an impression should not be undervalued. We are taught by this insight that there is an identity of elementary human conflicts existing independent of time and place. That which affected the Greeks with horror still remains true. But it is true for us only when we give up a vain illusion that we are different. That is to say more moral than the ancients. We of the present day have nearly succeeded in forgetting that an indissoluble common bond binds us to the people of antiquity. With this truth, a path is open to the understanding of the ancient mind, an understanding which so far has not existed and on one side leads to an inner sympathy and on the other side to an intellectual comprehension through buried strata of the individual. So we come indirectly into possession of the living mind of the ancient culture. And just precisely through that do we win that stable point of view outside our own culture from which for the first time an objective understanding of their mechanisms would be possible. At least that is the hope which we get from that rediscovery of the Edipus problem. The inquiry made possible by Freud's work has already resulted fruitfully. We are indebted to this stimulation of four bold attacks upon the territory of the history of the human mind. There are the works of Ricklin Abraham rank meter Jones recently silverer has joined their ranks with a beautiful investigation entitled fonty unthus. We are indebted to Fister for comprehensive work which cannot be overlooked here and which is of much importance for Christian religious psychology. The leading purpose of these works is the unlocking of historical problems through the application of psychoanalytic knowledge, that is to say, knowledge drawn from the activity of the modern unconscious mind concerning specific historical material. I must refer the reader entirely to the specified works in order that he may gain information concerning the extent and the kind of insight which has already been obtained. The explanations are in many cases dubious and particulars. Nevertheless, this detracts in no way from the total result. It would be significant enough if only the far-reaching analogy between the psychologic structure of the historical relics and the structure of the recent individual psychologic products alone were demonstrated. This proof is possible of attainment for every intelligent person through the work done up to this time. The analogy prevails especially in symbolism as Rickand rank meter and Abraham have pointed out with illuminating examples. It is also shown in the individual mechanisms of unconscious work, that is to say in repression, condensation, etc., as Abraham explicitly shows. Up to the present time, the psychoanalytic investigator has turned his interest chiefly to the analysis of the individual psychologic problems. It seems to me, however, that in the present state of affairs, there is a more or less imperative demand for the psychoanalyst to broaden the analysis of the individual problems by a comparative study of historical material relating to them, just as Freud has already done in a masterly manner in his book on Leonardo da Vinci. For just as the psychoanalytic conceptions promote understanding of the historic psychologic creations, so reversedly historical materials can shed new light upon individual psychologic problems. These and similar considerations have caused me to turn my attention somewhat more to the historical in the hope that out of this new insight into the foundations of individual psychology might be one. End of section three.

Section four of psychology of the unconscious by Carl Jung. This LibriVox recording is in the public domain. Section four, chapter one, part one, concerning the two kinds of thinking. It is a well-known fact that one of the principles of analytic psychology is that the dream images are to be understood symbolically. That is to say that they are not to be taken literally just as they are presented in sleep but that behind them a hidden meaning has to be surmised. It is this ancient idea of a dream symbolism which has challenged not only criticism. But in addition to that the strongest opposition that dreams may be full of import and therefore something to be interpreted is certainly neither a strange nor an extraordinary idea. This has been familiar to mankind for thousands of years and therefore seems much like a banel truth. The dream interpretations of the Egyptians and Chaldanss and the story of Joseph who interpreted Pharaoh's dreams are known to everyone. And the dream book of our timidoris is also familiar. From countless inscribed monuments of all times and peoples, we learn of forboding dreams of significant of prophetic and also of curative dreams which the deity sent to the sick sleeping in the temple. We know the dream of the mother of Augustus who dreamt she was to be with child by the deity transformed into a snake. We will not heap up references and examples to bear witness to the existence of a belief in the symbolism of dreams. When an idea is so old and is so generally believed, it is probably true in some way and indeed as is mostly the case is not literally true but is true psychologically. In this distinction lies the reason why the old fogies of science have from time to time thrown away an inherited piece of ancient truth because it was not literal but psychologic truth. For such discrimination of this type of person has at no time had any comprehension.

From our experience, it is hardly conceivable that a god existing outside of ourselves causes dreams or that the dream ao foresees the future prophetically. When we translate this into the psychologic, however, then the ancient theories sound much more reconcilable, namely the dream arises from a part of the mind unknown to us but nonetheless important and is concerned with the desires for the approaching day. This psychologic formula derived from the ancient superstitious conception of dreams is so to speak exactly identified with the fraudian psychology which assumes a rising wish from the unconscious to be the source of the dream. As the old belief teaches the deity or the demon speaks in symbolic speech to the sleeper and the dream interpreter has the riddle to solve. In modern speech, we say this means that the dream is a series of images which are apparently contradictory and nonsensical, but arise in reality from psychologic material which yields a clear meaning.

Were I to suppose among my readers a far-reaching ignorance of dream analysis, then I should be obliged to illustrate this statement with numerous examples. Today, however, these things are quite well known, so that one must proceed carefully with everyday dream material, out of consideration for a public educated in these matters. It is a special inconvenience that no dream can be recounted without being obliged to add to it half a life's history, which affords the individual foundations of the dream. But there are some few typical dreams, which can be told without too great a ballast. One of these is the dream of the sexual assault, which is especially prevalent among women. A girl sleeping after an evening happily spent in dancing, dreams that a robber breaks open her door noisily and stabs through her body with a lance. This theme, which explains itself, has countless variations, some simple, some complicated. Instead of the lance, it is a sword, a dagger, a revolver, a gun, a cannon, a hydrant, a watering pot. Or the assault is a burglary or pursuit, a robbery. Or it is some one hidden in the closet or under the bed. Or the danger may be illustrated by wild animals, for instance, a horse which throws the dreamer to the ground and kicks her in the body with his hind foot, lions, tigers, elephants with threatening drunks, and finally snakes in endless variety. Sometimes the snake creeps into the mouth. Sometimes it bites the breast like Cleopatra's legendary asp. Sometimes it comes in the role of the paradisiacal snake or in the variations of Fruk whose pictures of snakes bear the significant titles vice sin lust. The mixture of lust and anxiety is expressed incomparably in the very atmosphere of these pictures, and far more brutally indeed than in Ma's charming poem, the maiden's first love song. What's in the net? Behold, but I am afraid. Do I grasp a sweet eel? Do I seize a snake? Love is a blind fisherwoman. Tell the child where to seize already it leaps in my hands. Oh pity or delight with nestlings and turnings. It coils on my breast. It bites me. Oh wonder boldly through the skin. It darts under my heart. Oh love I shudder. What can I do? What can I begin? That shuddtering thing there it crackles within and coils in a ring. It must be poisoned. Here it crawls around blissfully I feel as it worms itself into my soul and kills me finally. All these things are simple and need no explanation to be intelligible.

Somewhat more complicated, but still unmistakable is the dream of a woman. She sees the triumphal arch of Constantine. A cannon stands before it. To the right of it, a bird. To the left, a man. A shot flashes out of the tube. The projectile hits her. It goes into her pocket, into her purse. There it remains, and she holds her purse as if something very precious were in it. The image disappears and she continues to see only the stock of the cannon and over that Constantine's motto in hoke sign winkus. These few references to the symbolic nature of dreams are perhaps sufficient for whomsoever the proof may appear insufficient and it is certainly insufficient for a beginner. Further evidence may be found in the fundamental work of Freud and in the works of Steel and Ron which are fuller in certain particulars. We must assume here that the dream symbolism is an established fact in order to bring to our study a mind suitably prepared for an appreciation of this work. We would not be successful if we on the contrary were to be astonished at the idea that an intellectual image can be projected into our conscious psychic activity. An image which apparently obeys such holy other laws and purposes than those governing the conscious psychic product.

Why are dreams symbolic? Every why in psychology is divided into two separate questions first. For what purpose are dreams symbolic? We will answer this question only to abandon it at once. Dreams are symbolic in order that they cannot be understood in order that the wish which is the source of the dream may remain unknown. The question why this is so and not otherwise leads us out into the far-reaching experiences and trains the thought of the Freudian psychology. Here the second question interests us this how is it that dreams are symbolic? That is to say from where does this capacity for symbolic representation come of which we in our conscious daily life can discover apparently no traces. Let us examine this more closely. Can we really discover nothing symbolic in our everyday thought? Let us follow our trains of thought. Let us take an example. We think of the war of 1870 and 1871. We think about a series of bloody battles, the siege of Strawburg, Belffort, Paris, the treaty of peace, the foundation of the German Empire and so on. How have we been thinking? We start with an idea or super idea as it is also called and without thinking of it. But each time merely guided by a feeling of direction, we think about individual remnances of the war. In this we can find nothing symbolic and our whole conscious thinking proceeds according to this type. If we observe our thinking very narrowly and follow an intensive train of thought as for example the solution of a difficult problem then suddenly we notice that we are thinking in words that in wholly intensive thinking we begin to speak to ourselves or that we occasionally write down the problem or make a drawing of it so as to be absolutely clear. It must certainly have happened to anyone who has lived for some time in a foreign country that after a certain period he has begun to think in the language of the country. A very intensive train of thinking works itself out more or less in word form. That is if one wants to express it to teach it or to convince anyone of it. Evidently, it directs itself wholly to the outside world. To this extent, this directed or logical thinking is a reality thinking having a real existence for us. That is to say, a thinking which adjusts itself to actual conditions where we expressed in other words imitate the succession of objectively real things so that the images in our mind follow after each other in the same strictly causal succession as the historical events outside of our mind. We call this thinking. Thinking with directed attention. It has in addition the peculiarity that one is tired by it and that on this account it is set into action only for a time. Our whole vital accomplishment which is so expensive is adaptation to environment. A part of it is the directed thinking which biologically expressed is nothing but a process of psychic assimilation which as in every vital accomplishment leaves behind a corresponding exhaustion. The material with which we think is language and speech concept a thing which has been used from time immemorial as something external a bridge for thought and which has a single purpose that of communication. As long as we think directedly, we think for others and speak to others. Speech is originally a system of emotional and imitative sounds. Sounds which express terror, fear, anger, love, and sounds which imitate the noises of the elements, the rushing and gurgling of water, the rolling of thunder, the tumults of the winds, the tones of the animal world, and so on. And finally those which represent a combination of the sounds of perception and of effective reaction. Likewise in the more or less modern languages large quantities of an animata poetic relics are retained. For example sounds for the movement of waters. Rashian rristen rian renin renan tash rela rouso river rhyme baser bison bern piss biss. Thus, language is originally and essentially nothing but a system of signs or symbols which denote real occurrences or their echo in the human soul. Therefore, one must decidedly agree with Anatol France when he says, "What is thought and how do we think? We think with words that alone is sensual and brings us back to nature. Think of it." The metaphysician has only the perfected cry of monkeys and dogs with which to construct the system of the world. That which he calls profound speculation and transcendent method is to put end to end in an arbitrary order the natural sounds which cry out hunger, fear and love in the primitive force and to which were attached little by little the meanings which one believed to be abstract when they were only crude. Do not fear that the succession of small cries, feeble and stifled, which compose a book of philosophy, will teach us so much regarding the universe, that we can live in it no longer. Thus is our directed thinking, and even if we were the loneliest and furthest removed from our fellows. This thinking is nothing but the first notes of a long drawn out call to our companions that water had been found, that we had killed the bear, that a storm was approaching, or that wolves were prowling around the camp. A striking paradox of a lards, which expresses in a very intuitive way the whole human limitation of our complicated thinking process reads, "Mo generatu at generat intellectum. Speech is generated by the intellect and in turn generates intellect. Any system of philosophy, no matter how abstract, represents and means and purpose, nothing more than an extremely cleverly developed combination of original nature sounds. Hence arises the desire of a schopenhau or a nija for recognition and understanding and the despair and bitterness of their loneliness. One might expect perhaps that a man full of genius could pasture in the greatness of his own thoughts and renounce the cheap appribation of the crowd which he despises. Yet he succumbs to the more powerful impulse of the herd instinct. His searching and his finding his call belong to the herd.

When I said just now that directed thinking is properly a thinking with words and quoted that clever testimony of Anato France as drastic proof of it, a misunderstanding might easily arise, namely that directive thinking is really only word. That certainly would go too far. Language should however be comprehended in a wider sense than that of speech which is in itself only the expression of the formulated thought which is capable of being communicated in the widest sense. Otherwise the deaf mute would be limited to the utmost in his capacity for thinking which is not the case in reality without any knowledge of the spoken word. He has his language. This language considered from the standpoint of history or in other words directed thinking is here a descendant of the primitive words as for instance vunt expresses it. A further important result of that cooperation of sound and sign interchange consists in the fact that very many words gradually lose altogether their original concrete thought meaning and turn into signs for general ideas and for the expression of the appceptive functions of relation and comparison and their products. In this manner, abstract thought develops, which because it would not be possible without the change of meaning lying at the root of it, is indeed a production of that psychic and psychophysical reciprocal action out of which the development of language takes place. Yodel denies the identity of language and thought because for one reason one and the same psychic fact might be expressed in different languages in different ways. From that he draws the conclusion that a super language thinking exists. Certainly there is such a thing whether with Erdman one considers it hypologuage. Only this is not logical thinking. My conception of it agrees with the noteworthy contribution made by Baldwin which I will quote here word for word. The transmission from pre-judgmental to judgmental meaning is just that from knowledge which has social confirmation to that which gets along without it. The meanings utilized for judgment are those already developed in their presuppositions and applications through the confirmation of social intercourse. Thus the personal judgment trained in the methods of social rendering and disciplined by the interaction of its social world projects its content into that world again. In other words, the platform for all movement into the assertion of individual judgment. The level from which new experience is utilized is already and always socialized. And it is just this movement that we find reflected in the actual results as the sense of the appropriateness or synonyomic character of the meaning rendered. Now the development of thought as we are to see in more detail is by a method essentially of trial and error of experimentation of the use of meanings as worth more than they are as yet recognized to be worth. The individual must use his own thoughts, his established knowledges, his grounded judgments for the embodiment of his new inventive constructions. He erects his thought, as we say, schematically, in logic terms, problematically, conditionally, disjunctively, projecting into the world an opinion still peculiar to himself as if it were true. Thus all discovery proceeds. But this is from the linguistic point of view still to use the current language, still to work by meanings already embodied in social and conventional usage. Language grows therefore just as thought does by never losing its or dual reference. Its meaning is both personal and social. It is the register of tradition, the record of racial conquest, the deposit of all the gains made by the genius of individuals. The social copy system thus established reflects the judgmental processes of the race and in turn becomes the training school of the judgment of new generations. Most of the training of the self whereby the vagaries of personal reaction to fact and image are reduced to the basis of sound judgment comes through the use of speech. When the child speaks, he lays before the world. His suggestion for a general or common meaning. The reception he gets confirms or refutes him. In either case, he is instructed. His next venture is now from a platform of knowledge on which the newer item is more nearly convertible into the common coin of effective intercourse. The point to notice here is not so much the exact mechanism of the exchange. Secondary conversion by which this gain is made as the training in judgment that the constant use of it affords. In each case, effective judgment is the common judgment. Here the object is to point out that it is secured by the development of a function whose rise is directly at hawk directly for the social experimentation by which growth and personal competence is advanced as well the function of speech in language. Therefore to sum up the foregoing we have the tangible, the actual, the historical instrument of the development and conservation of psychic meaning. It is the material evidence and proof of the concurrence of social and personal judgment in its synomic meaning judged as appropriate becomes social meaning held as socially generalized and acknowledged.

These arguments of Baldwin abundantly emphasize the wide-reaching limitations of thinking caused by language. These limitations are of the greatest significance both subjectively and objectively. At least their meaning is great enough to force one to ask oneself if after all in regard to independence of thought. Fron mouthner thoroughly skeptical is not really correct in his view that thinking is speech and nothing more. Baldwin expresses himself more cautiously and reservedly. Nevertheless, his inner meaning is plainly in favor of the primacy of speech naturally not in the sense of the spoken word. The directed thinking, or as we might perhaps call it, the thinking in internal speech, is a manifest instrument of culture. And we do not go astray when we say that the powerful work of education which the centuries have given to directed thinking has produced just through the peculiar development of thinking from the individual subjective into the social objective a practical application of the human mind to which we owe modern empiricism and technique and which occurs for absolutely the first time in the history of the world. Inquisitive minds have often tormented themselves with the question why the undoubtedly extraordinary knowledge of mathematics and principles of material facts united with the unexampled art of the human hand in antiquity never arrived at the point of developing those known technical statements of fact for instance the principle of simple machines beyond the realm of the amusing and curious to a real technique in the modern sense. There is necessarily only one answer to this. The ancients almost entirely with the exception of a few extraordinary minds lack the capacity to allow their interest to follow the transformations of inanimate matter to the extent necessary for them to be able to reproduce the process of nature creatively and through their own art by means of which alone they could have succeeded in putting themselves in possession of the force of nature. That which they lacked was training and directed thinking or to express it psychoanalytically. The ancients did not succeed in tearing loose the libido which might be sublimated from the other natural relations and did not turn voluntarily to anthropomorphism. The secret of the development of culture lies in the mobility of the libido and in its capacity for transference. It is therefore to be assumed that the directed thinking of our time is a more or less modern acquisition which was lacking in earlier times.

But with that we come to a further question. Viz what happens if we do not think directedly then our thinking lacks the major idea and the feeling of direction which emanates from that we no longer compel our thoughts along a definite track but let them float sink and mount according to their own gravity according to kulpa thinking as a kind of inner will action the absence of which necessarily leads to an automatic play of ideas understands the nondirected thinking or merely associative thinking As the ordinary one, he expresses himself about that in the following manner. Our thought consists for the great part of a series of images, one of which produces the other, a sort of passive dream state of which the higher animals are also capable. This sort of thinking leads, nevertheless, to reasonable conclusions of a practical as well as of a theoretical nature. As a rule, the links of this sort of irresponsible thinking which are accidentally bound together are empirically concrete things, not abstractions. We can in the following manner complete these definitions of William James. This sort of thinking does not tire us. It quickly leads us away from reality into fantasies of the past and future. Here thinking in the form of speech ceases. Image crowds upon image, feeling upon feeling. More and more clearly, one sees a tendency which creates and makes believe, not as it truly is, but as one indeed might wish it to be. The material of these thoughts, which turns away from reality, can naturally be only the past with its thousand memory pictures. A customary speech calls this kind of thinking dreaming. Whoever attentively observes himself will find the general custom of speech very striking. For almost every day we can see for ourselves how when falling asleep fantasies are woven into our dreams, so that between the dreams of day and night there is not so great a difference. Thus we have two forms of thinking, directed thinking and dream or fantasy thinking. The first working for communication with speech elements is troublesome and exhausting. The latter, on the contrary, goes on without trouble, working spontaneously, so to speak, with reminiscences. The first creates innovations, adaptations, imitates reality, and seeks to act upon it. The latter, on the contrary, turns away from reality, sets free subjective wishes, and is in regard to adaptation wholly unproductive.

Let us leave aside the query as to why we possess these two different ways of thinking. And turn back to the second proposition, namely how comes it that we have two different ways of thinking. I have intimated above that history shows us that directed thinking was not always as developed as it is at present. In this age, the most beautiful expression of directed thinking is science and the technique fostered by it. Both things are indebted for their existence simply to an energetic education and directed thinking. At the time, however, when a few forerunners of the present culture like the poet Petrarch first began to appreciate nature understandingly, there was already in existence an equivalent for our science to scholasticism. This took its subject from the fantasies of the past and it gave to the mind a dialectic training and directed thinking. The only success which beckoned the thinker was rhetorical victory and disputation and not a visible transformation of reality. The subjects of thinking were often astonishingly fantastical. For example, questions were discussed such as how many angels could have a place on the point of a needle, whether Christ could have done his work of redemption equally well if he had come into the world as a pee, the possibility of such problems to which belong the metaphysical problems in general. There is to be able to know the unknowable shows us of what peculiar kind that mind must have been, which created such things which to us are the height of absurdity. Na had gazed, however, at the biological background of this phenomenon when he spoke of the beautiful tension of the Germanic mind which the middle ages created. Taken historically, scholasticism in the spirit of which persons of towering intellectual power such as Thomas of Aquinus, Duncotus, Abalard, William Abakam, and others have labored is the mother of the modern scientific attitude. At a later time we'll see clearly how and in what scholasticism still furnishes living undercurrens to the science of today. Its whole nature lies in dialectic gymnastics which have raised the symbol of speech the word to an almost absolute meaning so that it finally attained to that substantiality which expiring antiquity could lend to its logos only temporarily through attributes of mystical valuation. The great work of scholasticism, however, appears to be the foundation of firmly knitted intellectual sublimation, the gonditio suan of the modern scientific and technical spirit.

Should we go further back into history, we shall find that which today we call science dissolved into an indistinct cloud. The modern culture creating mind is incessantly occupied in stripping off all subjectivity from experience and in finding those formulas which bring nature and her forces to the best and most fitting expression. It would be an absurd and entirely unjustified self- glorification if we were to assume that we are more energetic or more intelligent than the ancients. Our materials for knowledge have increased but not our intellectual capacity. For this reason we become immediately as obstinate and insusceptible in regard to new ideas as people in the darkest times of antiquity. Our knowledge has increased but not our wisdom. The main point of our interest is displaced wholly into material reality. Antiquity preferred a mode of thought which was more closely related to a fantastic type. Except for sensitive pspecuity towards works of art not attained since then. We seek in vain in antiquity for that precise and concrete manner of thinking characteristic of modern science. We see the antique spirit create not science but mythology. Unfortunately, we acquire in school only a very pulary conception of the richness and immense power of life of Grecian mythology. Therefore, at first glance, it does not seem possible for us to assume that that energy and interest which today we put into science and technique the man of antiquity gave in great part to his mythology. That nevertheless gives the explanation for the bewildering changes, the kaleidoscopic transformations and new sincistic groupings and the continued rejuvenation of the myths in the Grecian sphere of culture. Here we move in a world of fantasies which little concerned with the outer course of things flows from an inner source and constantly changing creates now plastic now shadowy shapes. This fantastical activity of the ancient mind created artistically par excellence. The object of the interest does not seem to have been to grasp hold of the how of the real world as objectively and exactly as possibly but to aesthetically adapt subjective fantasies and expectations. There was very little place among ancient people for the coldness and disillusion which Jono Bruno's thoughts on eternity and Kepler's discoveries brought to modern humanity the naive man of antiquity.