From Swift to Mojo and high-performance AI Engineering with Chris Lattner

于是我便在晚上和周末重新开始。没有征求许可。只是开始摸索，看看有什么可以做得更好。第一年半，我真的是在晚上和周末独自工作，我还有一份全职工作，并且管理着一个大团队，有很多事情要处理。>> 等一下。所以，到这个时候，是的，你已经是二级经理什么的，并且有一个40人的团队在做很多非常有趣和非常令人愉快的事情。>> 你很擅长同时处理多件事情。>> 这是一个激情项目。我还是一个相当不错的程序员，所以这很有帮助。>> 你如何从这张空白画布开始，然后说，好的，我认为语言会是这样的。>> 我职业生涯中从很多空白画布开始，对吧？所以，LLVM 是空白画布，ML 后来是空白画布，Mojo，Swift，我构建的许多系统都是空白画布项目。>> 你认为设计一种新的语言，让 LLM 能够轻松编码，这有什么逻辑吗？所以，我经常被问到，鉴于 AI 正在编写所有代码，你为什么还要构建一门编程语言？这是一种问同样问题的方式，也许语气更强硬一些。对我来说，我认为完全不应该针对 LLM 进行优化，因为最重要的事情是 Chris Lner 在过去20年里创造了一些最具影响力的编程语言和编译器技术。他是 LLVM 的创造者，Swift、Rust 和 C++ 等语言都使用它。他创造了 Swift 编程语言，曾参与 TensorFlow 的开发，现在则致力于 Mojo 编程语言。在这场对话中，我们涵盖了 LLVM 的起源故事，以及 Chris 如何说服苹果公司将其所有主要的苹果开发工具迁移到支持这项新技术。Chris 如何在苹果公司创造 Swift，包括他在一年半的时间里如何秘密地开发这门新语言，以及为什么 Mojo 是 Chris 期望能够帮助更轻松、更快速地构建高效 AI 程序的语言，Chris 如何使用 AI 工具，以及作为一名经验丰富的程序员，他看到了哪些生产力方面的提升，等等。如果你想了解像 Chris 这样真正出色的软件工程师是如何思考和完成工作的，以及他是如何设计一门可能成为 AI 工程重要组成部分的语言的，那么这一集就是为你准备的。本播客节目由 Statsig 提供，这是一个统一的平台，提供标志、分析、实验等服务。请查看节目笔记，了解更多关于他们以及我们其他季度的赞助商的信息。那么，Chris，欢迎来到播客。>> 谢谢你的邀请。很高兴能亲眼见到你，因为我觉得你所做的工作对我个人在 Adooper 产生了影响。我们迁移到了 Swift，当然我们使用的很多软件都运行在你构建的东西之上。那么，我们能否将时间倒回到2000年初，对于我们中一些当时还没有真正出现的人，你能描述一下当时编译器和语言行业的状况，以及当时的现状吗？是的。所以，我的意思是，我参与了 Linux 的早期阶段，我可能不是从最早期开始，但我在90年代中期开始使用 Linux，那时 Java 正崭露头角，随着这一切的发展，行业里很多事情都在发生变化。GCC 是标准化了许多软件的编译器，很多人用它来构建基于 Linux 的软件，我就是这样认识它的。GCC 是一个很棒的东西。在 GCC 之前，很多人不知道这一点，每个硬件供应商都在制造自己的编译器，即使只是 C 代码，那也是一个巨大的混乱，因为这些编译器之间没有一个兼容。>> 你这样做是有原因的，只是为了让我理解，就像你有 C 代码，它需要被翻译成特定硬件的汇编代码，然后硬件供应商，你知道，他们负责映射和弄清楚像什么定制指令之类的东西。是这个原因吗？>> 是的。所以，基本上，尤其是在80年代末和90年代初，指令集的多样性要大得多，芯片制造商也在不断创新，你有 HP 在制造东西，你也有英特尔当时在制造很多不同的系统，而且当时有很多各种各样的事情在发生，所以你有了正在发明的 RISC 计算机。所以当时的挑战是每个人都必须构建自己的编译器，因为每个人都必须构建自己的编译器，他们都想要 C，并且一些 C++ 也在出现……而 C 是一项标准，所以有一个规范说明了代码应该是什么样子，但正如我们所知，对于许多标准和许多规范，它们从未完整过。所以最终发生的是，这些编译器中的每一个都是一个巨大的混乱，因为它们有不同的错误，它们有不同的错误功能，它们缺乏某些功能。所以当时的软件是用像 autocomp 这样的系统构建的，那是一个非常奇怪的宏处理的东西，试图绕过一些限制，那是一个巨大的噩梦。所以 GCC 在90年代初出现，清理了那个混乱。它成为了人们可以接入的标准，许多芯片制造商都接受了它，而且它是免费软件，所以这导致了 Linux 的崛起。Linux 采用了它，这真的推动了世界前进。现在 GCC 是个好东西。它确实帮助标准化了世界，我认为许多自由软件和开源软件都对 GCC 感激不尽，但它也是一个非常古老的东西，所以当时我嘲笑它。它已经超过20年了，而且它的架构在很多方面都非常非常老派。它也不是为了模块化设计而构建的。它被设计成做一件事，接收 C 代码，然后为给定的芯片输出汇编代码。所以有很多事情你做不了，比如 JIT 编译，当时你甚至无法跨文件进行优化。>> JIT 就是即时编译，对吧？>> 即时编译。没错。所以，很多人想做的事情，用 GCC 都做不了。所以，在大约2000年，我还在上大学，我正在学习编译器，我说哦，好吧，在这一领域构建一些新的东西会不会很有趣？所以，我开始研究 LLVM。LLVM 最初是一个代码生成系统，你可以针对多种不同的架构，但对我来说，它是一个学习过程，关于说，好吧，编译器很酷，不要让任何人告诉你编译器不酷。>> 即使是今天，对吧？>> 即使是今天。所以，我当时对它一无所知。所以，我想通过构建来学习。所以，在我的大学项目期间，我不断地构建这个东西。然后我们开源了它。它获得了一点社区支持。后来我去了苹果，这极大地促进和资助了许多开发，而早期的起点来自于，你知道，GCC 和开源技术都非常好，但有很多事情我们做不了。所以，我就是这样陷入了这个兔子洞。>> 当你开始并开源时，你开源了什么？它能做什么？>> 是的。然后，你觉得早期版本的 LLVM 的反应如何？>> 哦，所以，LLVM 当时，这非常有趣，因为很多人回顾成功的系统，他们认为一切都很明显，而实际上，每一步都充满挑战，你必须赢得你获得的任何成功。你很少会偶然成功。所以，当我第一次在 LLVM 工作时，它是在大学的一个研究项目。大学里有很多研究项目最终一事无成。所以，>> 我认为大多数可能都一事无成。>> 没错。所以，当时普遍的假设是 LLVM 也不会有结果。对于任何版本来说，这都是一个安全的假设。所以，我们内部使用它。我的导师 Vicram Madve 鼓励我们继续构建它，然后我们把它教给了几门课程。所以，我们有几个人在内部使用它，并且我们获得了一些用例。但当时它真的只是优化和代码生成。所以，它连接到 GCC，使用解析器和 to 来解析 C C 代码，例如。所以，它只是关于代码生成，对于想学习的编译器人员来说很有用，但对于一般的应用程序开发人员来说，它真的不太有用。当我们开源它时，我不知道有两三个人对此感兴趣，而且主要是其他编译器爱好者，你知道，他们很可爱。但是没有一个大的社区，也没有什么主要原因让人们做出贡献。我所做的是，我说，好吧，实际上，就对待世界，就像对待其他研究小组一样，进行开放式开发，鼓励人们，如果他们过来并想帮忙做一些很棒的事情。如果他们有疑问，我会回答，并尊重他人。随着时间的推移，社区慢慢壮大。我们吸引了对不同事物感兴趣的个人。有些人对晦涩的编程语言感兴趣，因此他们对编译器技术感兴趣。其他人对性能感兴趣，不同的人有不同的兴趣。所以，非常非常缓慢地，它就成长起来了。GCC 和 LLVM 之间最大的区别是什么？就像，当然，模块化是一个方面，但你也提到了你想要做但 GCC 要么做不到，要么非常困难的能力。那些能力是什么？>> 是的，所以，所以最初只是即时编译，运行时代码生成。>> GCC 有这个功能吗？>> 他们只能做编译。>> 他们只能做一种批处理的、传统的 Unix 式的代码生成。当时，GCC 无法跨项目文件进行优化。所以，如果你有一个 C，如果你在一个 C 文件中有一个函数，它就无法将其内联到另一个 C 文件中。诸如此类的事情。LLVM 是用 C++ 编写的，这在当时非常有争议，因为>> GCC 全部是 C，而理查德·斯托曼非常反对 C++。所以，实际上，有一个平行宇宙，因为在2005年我加入了苹果，我们决定好吧，让我们看看 LLVM 和 GCC 是否应该合并，并实际上向 GCC 社区提出建议，嘿，我们有这项有趣的技术，这似乎非常互补，它可以提升 GCC 的架构，也许我们应该这样做。但它没有成功，主要是因为它用 C++ 编写，而且也不是在这里发明的。还有很多其他非常严肃、非常有经验的人，他们说，好吧，孩子，你为什么听你的？所以，它没有成功，谢天谢地。这使得 LLVM 必须自己成长。>> 然后，当你开始在苹果全职工作时，LLVM 真的开始起飞了吗？我猜至少有一个小团队在投资这个。是这样吗，还是别的？>> 是的。所以，所以去苹果的故事。所以，当我毕业时，我正在寻找编译器方面的工作，以及那些最好能让我继续从事 LLVM 工作的工作，因为那仍然是一项高级研究项目。它已经进行了5年，社区也壮大了很多。我每六个月都会进行一次常规发布，所以我真的投入了很多精力来倡导这项工作，并展示势头和速度。我引起了苹果一位副总裁的注意，有几个人正在为 LLVM 添加 PowerPC 后端，因为苹果当时正在做这件事。所以，我认识了他们，他们说，“嘿，来吧，我们对 GCC 很沮丧。它是我们所有编译器技术的基础。”>> 因为 GCC 编译 Objective C，例如。>> 对。没错。所以，又是老旧的架构。很难与之合作。他们没有获得他们想要的性能。添加功能非常困难。社区也因为各种原因对苹果感到恼火。所以，基本上管理层说，“来吧，在 LLVM 上工作。”我说，“是的，报名。”所以，当我开始时，他们确实给了我另一个工程师一起工作，但他们并没有给我太多指导。所以，我当时想，“好吧，>> 你基本上>> 太好了。我将实现 PowerPC 支持，并与 Mac OS 后端集成，等等。”然后，到了某个时候，他们说，“好吧，太好了。你在做这个。”我的经理说，“你正在研究这项很酷的技术真是太好了，但总有一天我们需要确保它对苹果确实有意义。”>> 它没有意义吗？>> 嗯，它还没有在任何产品中使用。>> 哦，我明白了，你添加了支持，但还没有使用。>> 还没有。是的，没错。而且在很多方面它不如 GCC 好。所以，我基本上得到了这样的感觉：好吧，一年后，如果苹果不使用某个产品，那么我就会开始做别的事情，因为我们不会仅仅付钱给你去研究一个开源项目，实际上对我们公司产生影响。所以，当我收到那份备忘录时，我的经理给了我很大的帮助，他很棒。他到处寻找，好吧，我们可以在短期内对业务产生什么影响？所以，从那里开始，第一个用例实际上是图形。所以，OpenGL 正在进行即时编译来做一些图形方面的事情。所以，我们能够做一些非常小的、有价值的事情。突然，啊哈，这不仅仅是一个科学项目。这实际上很有趣。现在它仍然缺少大量功能。但这使得下一组功能、下一组功能、下一组功能的开发成为可能。>> 它现在已经成为苹果实际使用和发布的产品的组成部分，而且，如果你想这么说的话，它正在产生商业价值。>> 虽然不多，但至少是非零的。>> 非零的。>> 没错。所以，所以，在苹果工作多年，我一直在说，好吧，我们将继续投资这项技术，继续构建一个开放的技术和一个开放的团队，以社区为中心，但要确保为苹果提供越来越多的价值。随着这一切的发生，突然之间，我最终取代了苹果内部所有的开发工具编译器代码生成调试器技术。>> 一步一步来。>> 没错。所以，在大约5年的时间里，我们构建了一个新的 C++ 解析器 clang 和 Objective C 前端，以及所有这些东西。到了2010年，苹果发布了第一款 64 位 iPhone。突然之间，这得益于 LLVM，我们构建的所有技术，以及所有这些东西。这在行业中是一个史诗般的时刻，因为每个人都确信 64 位手机是愚蠢的。那不是什么东西。64 位没有意义。为什么你要在手机里拥有超过 4GB 的内存？没错。太搞笑了。>> 哇。当年。但那就是人们的想法，对吧？>> 那就是他们的想法。他们说，“这效率低下。它永远不可能奏成。”所以，实际上，第一款 64 位 iPhone，它是 iPhone 5S 在 ARM 的芯片送回来测试之前就投入生产了。所以，我们构建了整个软件堆栈。我们启用了整个操作系统，整个工具链，所有这些东西都在内部。我们与 ARM 合作。但他们不知道我们领先了多少。然后突然我们开始批量生产，全世界都惊呆了，因为性能有多好，以及我们启用了所有功能，这非常有趣。所以我很难把两件事联系起来，你能帮我弄清楚我遗漏了什么。一方面，你知道，你让它看起来像是，好吧，你知道，起初当你去苹果时，一年时间里它是一个实验项目，然后你只是慢慢地从一个团队到另一个团队，但接下来我们知道，快进四五年后，它实际上正在驱动苹果的核心。它如何从那些小项目发展到真正进入公司的核心？你从开发工具开始是否有帮助，并且更多的开发者被说服了？你是如何与那些可能我猜想他们最终不得不冒险采用一项相对较新的技术（与至少已经存在了25年的 GCC 相比）的最高层级的架构师和决策者沟通的？>> 嗯，所以，这是高层支持的结合。所以，那些希望我成功的人，因为他们对 GCC 感到沮丧，所以他们想要一项新技术。所以，这非常有帮助。自下而上的成功相结合，这不是一件事。就像每六个月我们都会有一个新东西，它运作良好，然后继续。我以一个能把事情做成的人而闻名，所以我获得了更多的范围和责任。所以，我的，我在几年内从一名工程师发展到一名经理，再到一名二级经理，最终成为一名高级总监。所以，这不是一件事。这只是大量的辛勤工作，而且很有趣，因为我们能够，你知道，苹果当时的一个伟大之处在于你可以产生很大的影响，因为团队在成长，而且如果你能把事情做成，你就有了一个令人惊叹的工作平台，因为 iPhone 的出现以及许多其他技术的出现。Objective C 非常苹果化，但我们可以迁移它。这太重要了。我们为 Objective C 添加了大量功能。所以，随着我们构建这个，有很多机会，但这是来之不易的。在任何给定的时刻，它都不是保证的。但是，随着我在苹果的团队取得进展，我们一直在公开地做所有这些事情，然后突然其他人也开始看到价值。Cray 构建了一台超级计算机并为其使用了 LLVM。谷歌最终在2010年采用了它，并开始在谷歌内部用于一些小事情，然后谷歌内部有一个平行的项目，谷歌的另一位英雄建立了一个团队，并对谷歌产生了巨大影响。因此，为更多人在谷歌内部从事 LLVM 工作提供了理由，以及不同的工具、不同的项目和所有这些最终发生的事情。英特尔或 ARM 等公司最终取消了他们的内部编译器，转而使用 LLVM。>> 然后，突然之间，绝大多数工程团队都在从事一项工作，然后你就会获得价值的复利。今天，LLVM 有一个由数千人组成的社区。所以，看到这一点真是太神奇了。>> 令人难以置信。这感觉有点像你在开始滚雪球，你开始滚这个小东西，然后你知道，你做得足够长，大多数人没有这样做，但然后你就可以有一个雪人，然后你说哦，你从哪里得到所有那些雪？真是令人难以置信。>> 嗯，所以，我的意思是，这很有趣，因为人们总是想象成功。所以，你从一个起点开始，你说我想成为美国总统之类的。但是，有些人从中获得了很大的动力，而且它非常强大。我真正喜欢的是做所有工作，采取每一步，做那些不假思索的事情，弄清楚那些非常晦涩的事情，你知道，如果你能正确地构建架构，它会让整个事情复利并扩展，并以正确的方式组合，它能让你解决别人无法解决的问题。但这意味着，大多数时候我都在做人们不理解的事情。所以，我对此没意见。我已经习惯了。这就是我现在的期望。我不期望人们理解我。但发生的是，这些项目随着时间的推移而发展，它们发展到突然间就明白了，突然间人们就开始理解了，突然间你就可以解释它，因为它映射到他们的价值体系，以一种你知道他们可以衡量的方式。基本上 Chris 刚刚提到了，如果事情能够映射到人们的价值体系并以他们可以衡量的方式来衡量，那么事情对他们来说就会更容易理解。根据我的经验，衡量事物在各方面都有帮助。不仅在试图说服别人时，而且在弄清楚你构建的功能是否如你所料时也是如此。这是大多数团队面临的挑战。他们发布功能，但无法轻松衡量它们是否有效。新的结账流程是否提高了转化率？该功能是否有助于留存率，还是损害了它？没有衡量标准，你只能希望事情会奏效。这就是 Statsig 的用武之地。Static 是我们本季度的呈现合作伙伴。他们挑战了产品团队工作方式的现状。就像 Chris 挑战了编译器和编程语言应该如何工作一样。大多数团队接受碎片化的工具。功能标志在一个系统里，分析在另一个系统里，实验在别处。你将零散的解决方案拼接在一起，运行 ETL 作业来同步用户细分，希望不同系统之间的时间戳能够对齐。这就是现状，但不必如此。Static 构建了一个统一的数据平台，将所有内容集中在一个地方。功能标志、实验、分析和会话回放，所有这些都使用相同的用户分配和事件跟踪。所以，你将功能发布给10%的用户，而另外90%的用户自动成为你的对照组。你可以立即看到转化率是否发生了变化。深入了解用户在你的漏斗中在哪里流失。然后观看会话录制来了解出了什么问题。所有这些都使用相同的数据。这就是你能够以你发布的速度衡量影响的方式。像 Graphite、Notion 和 Brex 这样的公司都依赖这种方法来做出数据驱动的决策，而无需等待数据团队或跨工具手动关联信息。Static 有一个慷慨的免费套餐供入门，团队的专业定价每月150美元起。要了解更多信息并获得30天的企业试用，请访问 stats.com/pragmatic。有了这个。让我们回到与 Chris 的谈话。有一件事我觉得可能对任何人来说都很有适用性，那就是你在一家像苹果这样当时相当大且成功的公司里，但你仍然设法完成了这么多事情，就像你所说的，通过不断解决困难的技术问题，弄清楚如何帮助业务，而且有一个有趣的部分是 Clang 被开源了，而苹果当时 LLVM 也是开源的，所以那 kind of 我明白了，被祖父条款了。是的。>> 但我想问你的是，你是如何说服一家当时相当封闭，即使今天也相当封闭（除了少数几件事）的公司，让他们同意开源一个新项目的？我猜你的声誉或辛勤工作或完成事情的能力可能在那里，但你还用了什么来获得领导层的批准呢？因为我知道，他们肯定需要从高层说“是”，对吧？>> 是的。嗯，所以，Clang 实际上很容易，因为我们没有征求太多人的许可。我们只是做了，所以那是容易的。困难的是 Swift。>> 让我们来谈谈。>> 所以，我想我们会谈到。但那实际上是困难的。>> 并且，让我们来谈谈 Swift。正如你多次分享的 Swift 的故事，你是如何开始秘密地开发它的。你能告诉我是什么促使你开始尝试一门新语言吗？你看到了 Objective C 的问题，尤其是因为现在我们已经解决了编译器问题，你知道，编译可能已经达到了它能达到的最好水平，你是如何做到这种秘密的，秘密是什么意思？>> 是的。嗯，所以，Swift 的背景是，我于2005年加入苹果，我构建并基本上重新设计了他们的整个 C++、C 和 Objective C 工具链。到了2010年，在 WWDC（他们的夏季会议）上，我们发布了一个完整的堆栈替换，并且它正在运行。构建一个完整的、完全集成的 C++ 编译器并非易事。即使在那时，C++ 也是一门非常复杂的语言，而且是一个非常大的技术挑战。但它也非常令人沮丧，因为 C++ 至少对我来说，因为 C++ 是一门野兽般的语言。所以，你不可能在完成之后不问自己，我们能不能做得更好，对吧？正如你所说，我们构建了许多基础技术，几乎可以构建任何我们想要的东西。所以，我便在晚上和周末重新开始。没有征求许可。只是开始摸索，看看有什么可以做得更好。对我来说，我实际上是这么做的：好吧，让我们看看很多现有的语言。所以，让我们看看新的语言，让我们看看 Java，或者让我们看看 C++，但让我们也看看函数式语言，比如 OkCaml，以及 Haskell 和类似的东西。让我们也看看晦涩的语言，比如那些非常奇怪的。让我们看看 TypeScript 和 Dart 以及当时正在发生的其他语言。还有 Go 和类似的语言。所以，这真的就是说，我喜欢什么？我如何看待成功？我定义 Swift 的成功是让它易于使用和可扩展。所以我看到了很多语言，JavaScript 可能是最好的例子，你知道，你从一些非常简单的事情开始，你知道，一个周末的 JavaScript 破解，然后它获得了采用，然后你获得了开发者，然后开发者将他们的工具带到其他领域。所以，你知道，JavaScript 最初是为 onclick 处理程序设计的，但现在人们在用它运行 Web 服务器。>> 是的。嗯，所以，>> 我们看得太多了。>> 没错。所以，我的观察是，成功意味着你会被自然地带入其他领域。所以，要超越最初的胜利，要考虑更广泛的通用性和规模。我意识到，如果你以 Objective C 为例，我非常熟悉它，你知道，对象和 C 之间的这种二分法。所以，Objective C 有一个受 Smalltalk 启发的对象模型，然后它有 C 来提高性能。这实际上是一个非常漂亮的组合，因为你可以用 C 深入到硬件层面。但你也有高级 API。我意识到，它们不必是两种语言。>> 所以，所以你可以把好的部分>> 整合到一个系统中，这个系统实际上可以扩展，而且更容易学习，内存更安全，更现代，具有良好的类型推断，修复了一些语法问题，因为 Objective C 在两种世界之间有点混乱。有趣的是，你快进到今天，这正是 Python 的样子。Python 是一种漂亮的面向对象的语言，建立在 C、C++ 和 Rust 之上，它内部存在这种两世界的问题。所以，对我来说，这很有趣，再次，历史是如何与自身押韵的，而且有很多不同的事情在发生。但 Swift 最初的想法确实是关于如何构建一种可扩展的语言，以及如何将最好的想法融合在一起，毫不羞耻地从不同的地方借用想法。>> 你所说的可扩展性，你的意思是它可以用于你的特定任务，比如 iOS，然后它自然地适用于其他领域？>> 是的。而且，具体来说，可以扩展到嵌入式系统开发，一直到可以处理脚本的程度。所以，对于非常高级的编程来说，使用起来超级简单。>> 你能告诉我你是如何设计一门语言的吗？就像，我们作为开发者，我们使用很多语言，比如，再次，我认为我们都尝试过并用许多不同的语言构建过，尤其是在 AI 工具方面，尝试起来非常容易。对我自己来说，比如 TypeScript、Rust、Go，你知道，Haskell 尝试这个那个 Prolog，我习惯于使用它们。我发现并弄清楚有什么。但是当你有一张空白画布时，或者当你思考的时候，你是如何做的？你是那种，我不知道，元编程，然后写下你喜欢看到的东西。你当然也构建了编译器，你立即开始思考它将如何工作。你能给我们一点关于你如何从这张空白画布开始，然后说，好的，我认为语言会是这样的吗？>> 嗯，这是一个很好的问题，因为我职业生涯中从很多空白画布开始，对吧？所以，LLVM 是空白画布，为什么？对吧？ML 后来是空白画布，Mojo，Swift，我构建的许多系统都是空白画布项目。所以，对我来说，有几件事。首先，进行那种分析，反思，决定最终的成功是什么样的？然后进行调查。去看看有什么。有什么好的？有什么坏的？我非常坚信的一件事是，你可以采用一个你不喜欢的系统，但隐藏在一个系统里，即使你不喜欢它，通常也有好的想法。所以，你可以采纳好的想法，忽略其余的。例如，Java，我不喜欢垃圾回收和终结器，以及 Java 附带的所有这些东西，但能够进行 JIT 编译非常强大，对吧？所以，有很多事情你可以看，你可以说，Java 是技术领域的一大进步，原因有很多。但你可以看看，然后说，好吧，我喜欢它的一方面。所有这些其他东西都是可分离的，也许我不喜欢它们的工作方式，然后进行调查。然后，当我开始构建一个新系统时，我期望设计和重新设计，迭代和学习，并成长。我所做的是，我试图通过证明点来验证特定的假设，并说，好吧，我不会解决世界上所有的问题。我会让这一部分，这一部分，这一部分保持超级简单。就像，你知道，构成你猫头鹰的两圈，就让它们保持圆圈，然后投资于证明这一部分。如果我能完成这一部分，并且我能理解它有效，并且我能获得验证和信心。我知道它的输入和输出接口。现在我可以去下一个系统，构建它，构建这个东西，这样我们就可以理解它，并在前进中学习。但每一步，都要毫不畏惧地进行大规模的改变，翻桌子，再试一次。所以，你大约在2010年开始在周末和业余时间尝试 Swift。为什么需要到2014年才发布第一个版本？构建一门语言到底需要什么？因为再次，我认为我们都可以强调，这很酷，你有这些想法，当然你有丰富的经验，你尝试事物，但是，作为一个软件工程师，我不应该问这个问题，但我还是要问，为什么花了这么长时间？>> 哦，好吧，所以，事实证明，构建编程语言并不容易，我猜需要大约四年。>> 你能给我们一些关于它有多难的强调吗？是的。嗯，所以，所以，让我来概括一下它是如何进行的，这样你就知道了，因为，第一年半，我真的是一个人在做。>> 哦，>> 好的。所以，在晚上和周末，我还有一份全职工作，而且我管理着一个大团队，有很多事情要处理。>> 等一下。所以，到这个时候，是的，你已经是一个 pretty >> 二级经理什么的，并且有一个40人的团队在管理，是的。很多非常有趣和非常令人愉快的事情。>> 嗯，好吧，你很擅长同时处理多件事情。>> 这是一个激情项目。是的。是的。我还是一个相当不错的程序员，所以这很有帮助。但一年半后，我到了那个点，我告诉了管理层。我说，“嘿，我正在做这件事。你们怎么看？”他们说，“呃，是的。呃，不。我们为什么要一门新语言？Objective C 是让 iPhone 成功的。”>> 对。>> 对。所以我说，“不，什么？”我说，“好吧，我能不能让我的团队里的一两个人兼职做这个？”他们说，“呃，我猜你可以告诉他们，但我们真的不能承诺资源，你知道吗？”所以，所以，但是，你知道，再次，我受到尊重，并且做了好事。所以，我比其他人获得了更多的自由。我到了那个点，我说，好吧，让我们构建一些演示。然后大约三年后，[清嗓子] 我得到的大部分反馈是，好吧，如果你不喜欢 Objective C，那就让 Objective C 变得更好。你拥有 Objective C。而且，>> 这是自然的反应。我我意思是，作为一名工程师，我不想听。如果我戴上一点商业帽子，那就是你会>> 完全有道理。那是整个社区都在使用的。风险非常低。它能让你的现有投资更大。所以，我所做的是，我说，“好吧，嗯，在那四年的旅程中，不仅仅是建立了一个拥有了解自己的人的团队。那是发现，研究，以及与高管领导层的社交过程。”所以，嗯，我意识到，我说，“好吧，我想要内存安全。Objective C 没有内存安全。”>> 这是最大的事情之一，>> 引用计数和释放，而且完全是手动的，而且简直是一场噩梦。所以，我们发明了 ARC，一种自动进行引用计数的 A 方法。>> 这使得 Objective C 更易于学习和更安全。它也使其更接近 Swift。然后我们做了模块。然后我们做了字面量。在 Objective C 中，我们添加了所有这些功能，它的作用是让进行 Objective C 编程的实际体验更接近 Swift。所以，最终当 Swift 发布时，它就不会是一个突然的飞跃，而且它仍然是一个相当大的飞跃。但是，但是我们在这样做。嗯，但是与此同时，你知道，管理层说，“好吧，酷。你为什么要做这个？”而他们自己也有问题。我们到了大约三年后，我说，“好吧，我们认为我们应该认真对待这件事。”那时，我有一个大约250人的团队。我负责 Xcode 和整个开发工具团队。>> 而且你还在周末做这个。>> 嗯，是的。你可以看看我的 GitHub 历史记录，你可以回到2014年看看我在做什么。是的。但当时，对吧，他们说有一个大的高管审查和大量的内部讨论。我基本上说，看，我希望这是部门的重点，将其推向市场。>> 是的。>> 所以，嗯，那时，它还没有真正与 iOS 对接，对吧？它仍然缺少很多对象功能和类似的东西。我们没有用它构建的应用程序。所以，最后一年是大量的语言完成工作，但也是与 Xcode 中的调试器集成，代码格式化以及大量不同的功能。构建更多与 iOS SDK 的集成，那是一件大事，我们还没有这样做。所以，很多事情使得最终在四年后发布它成为可能。我想说，当我们发布它时，我们犯了一个错误，我们称之为 1.0。>> 我正要说到这个，因为我我对此有第一手的经验，关于 1.2，但是的，1.0 发布了，你知道，反馈，我只能从我记得的来说。人们非常兴奋，苹果正在发布一门新语言，iPhone 在2014年非常重要，那时你知道你可以在 iPhone 上建立一个大生意。Uber 我想 Snap，所有这些公司都在蓬勃发展，它已经是一种身份象征了，而且不是每个人都有 iPhone。然而，当你尝试它时，它就是不好。Xcode 没有重构支持。调试是一场噩梦。我们应该发布。>> 所以，所以，为什么你当时决定，你知道，我只是对你的想法感兴趣，当时你是如何做的，你知道，你有什么经验教训，现在你回头看？>> 是的。所以，嗯，所以它必须是 1.0 才能发布，因为苹果基本上不发布 0.5。所以，如果我们想发布，它必须被称为 1.0。所以，这是其中一个方面。但另一方面是我们想把它推出去。在我们发布的时候，苹果内部只有大约250人知道这件事。大多数人都在我的团队里，然后是一些营销高管和其他人。所以，我们知道我们不能在真空里用一份需要签署才能访问的 NDA 来构建一门好的编程语言，对吧？你必须把它推出去。你必须获得使用经验。所以，我的教训是，在它真正准备好，经过验证，并且你有大量的使用经验之前，不要称之为 1.0。我们把这些教训带到了 Mojo。Chris Lner 和他的团队于2014年发布了 Swift，此后它已成为构建原生 iOS 应用的实际标准，这让我们很好地谈到了我们的季度赞助商 Linear。Linear 的 iOS 应用也是基于 Swift 构建的。它是一个完全原生的应用。它不是用 React Native 或 Web 包装器构建的。这有充分的理由。Linear 的整个理念都围绕着速度和性能。桌面应用以其速度而闻名，但对速度的同样痴迷也延伸到了移动端。Linear 最近重新设计了他们的移动应用，采用了一些非常有趣的东西。他们自己对苹果的 Liquid Glass 设计语言的诠释。但他们并没有仅仅使用苹果的 API，而是从头开始重建了 UI。Linear 团队想要比苹果的系统允许的更多的导航和定制控制。经典的工程思维。如果现有解决方案不能满足你的需求，就自己构建。这是我最喜欢这个应用的细节。Linear 有一个叫做 Polls 的功能。基本上，这是一个提供你的所有开发工作的更新的提要，项目更新，什么在轨道上，什么被阻塞了，等等。在移动端，你可以把它作为音频简报来收听。Linear 团队告诉我，他们收到了来自工程领导者关于在通勤时收听他们的 Polls 更新的赞不绝口的好评。这就像一个关于团队工作的个性化播客。一位副总裁分享说，他在开车去办公室的路上，使用 Polls 来准备他的全体会议。这就是为什么我喜欢与 Linear 这样的工程团队合作。他们不仅仅是将桌面功能移植到移动端。他们实际上在思考人们如何以不同的方式使用他们的手机。如果你想看看他们在构建什么，请访问 linear.app/pragmatic。你可以使用移动应用来管理旅途中的问题跟踪，而且 Liquid Glass 的实现确实是精美的工程作品。现在，让我们回到 Swift 1.0，以及为什么这门语言在2014年发布时相当痛苦。但这也是关于确保我们与社区进行清晰的沟通。所以，我认为我们做得好的一件事是，我们对苹果内部说，看，我们需要发布这个，我们知道它不会完美，所以我们将告诉社区，你可以采用它，你可以构建应用程序并提交给商店，但我们会破坏你的源代码。>> 是的。>> 这是因为我们知道，当我们获得使用经验时，我们必须改变语言。所以，我们告诉人们，我们会帮助你，但是，但是，但是要准备好代码损坏。我很高兴我们这样做了。>> 我记得那真的很清楚。人们对此感到不满，但他们知道，当我们讨论是否要转向 Swift 时，在 Uber，重写发生在2016年，当时 Swift 是 1.2 版本，平台团队在评估后决定冒险，这是一个很大的风险，现在有关于它的故事。我有一篇博客文章，还有其他人分享了他们的经验，但他们这样做了，因为他们知道苹果是认真的。我认为开源部分也帮助建立了大量的信任，我几乎觉得那是我最后一次看到苹果社区真正团结起来，反对，就像 iOS 开发者，特别是>> 就像，你知道，我们会一起经历痛苦，我们知道这会很痛苦，但是，所有我认识的移动工程师都知道这是痛苦的，他们告诉他们的，你知道，他们的管理层等等，他们说这是正确的做法。当然，我认为苹果的这种轨迹确实有帮助，而且就像，好吧，他们不想落后。他们不想冒着有一天可能无法访问 API 的风险。那时还没有。我惊讶的一件事是，当 Swift 发布时，我不知道是否是发布当天，但 Xcode Playgrounds 和 ripple，读-打印-循环（read-about-print-loop）是发布当天就有的>> 也是发布当天的一部分。你知道，对于那些不知道 Xcode Playgrounds 的人来说，就像你可以直接在里面尝试一样。

Xcode，你可以试试 Swift，用 ripple，你也可以很容易地玩起来。为什么你决定在发布时需要那个东西？

>> 嗯，其中一部分来自于那一年的发布过程，所以一部分是，如果我们要做一门新语言，我们能从中得到什么？开发者体验如何？每个人都想得到点什么，对吧？所以，举个例子，我喜欢的文档团队说，这是我们写书的机会，这很棒，因为 Swift 在发布时就有一本书，而且非常棒。

>> 嗯，Xcode 团队说，好吧，还有管理层和市场部的人说，好吧，我们能有交互式编程吗？这是我们从未有过的东西，所以我们想要它，这就是 Playground 的由来。

>> 嗯，ripple 来自于我说，好吧，现代语言应该有 ripple，这是一个内置于调试器中的东西，我们可以使用很多不同的功能，而且让它感觉更现代会很有意义，如果我们要做这件事，就把它做好。

>> 所以有很多这样的想法，好吧，如果你要做，就现在就获得优势。

>> 现在，它的另一面是我们被极大地过度扩张了，所以很多愿景是正确的，但尤其是在 1.0 甚至 1.2 版本，这些东西很多都还没有成熟，而且花费了很长时间，我认为我们低估了其中一些事情的难度，等待 2.0 或 3.0 的发布，虽然，你知道，也许对其中一些事情会更好。

>> 但无论如何，事后看来很容易变得消极和评判，对吧？

>> 当时，我们都在努力工作，试图创造一些令人惊叹的东西。

>> 而且，你知道，我们一边做一边学习。

>> 我对社区非常感激。

>> 但我还要说的一件事是，虽然你可能一直在关注“哇，太棒了，让我们采用吧，让我们领先于潮流”。

>> 也有同样多的人在说，“你在说什么？Objective C 很好。如果没坏，就别修。”

>> 他们就像在挥舞拳头说，“我永远不会用新东西”，等等等等，然后他们写了很多关于 Swift 的坏话。

>> 所以，社区的重心转移花了相当长的时间。

>> >> 嗯，这是一个有趣的事实，2016 年我记得是 2016 年中期，或者可能稍早一点，Uber 是 iOS 上最大的移动优先公司之一，在 iOS 上成长，生活和呼吸 iOS，当然还有 Android。

>> 而且移动平台团队在 2016 年初进行了一项调查，距离 Swift 发布 2 年了。

>> 这是 Swift 1.2，说我们计划重写应用程序。重写是一件事。

>> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> 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>> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >>

Xcode，你可以试试 Swift，用 ripple，你也可以很容易地玩起来。为什么你决定在发布时需要那个东西？

>> 嗯，其中一部分来自于那一年的发布过程，所以一部分是，如果我们要做一门新语言，我们能从中得到什么？开发者体验如何？每个人都想得到点什么，对吧？所以，举个例子，我喜欢的文档团队说，这是我们写书的机会，这很棒，因为 Swift 在发布时就有一本书，而且非常棒。

>> 嗯，Xcode 团队说，好吧，还有管理层和市场部的人说，好吧，我们能有交互式编程吗？这是我们从未有过的东西，所以我们想要它，这就是 Playground 的由来。

>> 嗯，ripple 来自于我说，好吧，现代语言应该有 ripple，这是一个内置于调试器中的东西，我们可以使用很多不同的功能，而且让它感觉更现代会很有意义，如果我们要做这件事，就把它做好。

>> 所以有很多这样的想法，好吧，如果你要做，就现在就获得优势。

>> 现在，它的另一面是我们被极大地过度扩张了，所以很多愿景是正确的，但尤其是在 1.0 甚至 1.2 版本，这些东西很多都还没有成熟，而且花费了很长时间，我认为我们低估了其中一些事情的难度，等待 2.0 或 3.0 的发布，虽然，你知道，也许对其中一些事情会更好。

>> 但无论如何，事后看来很容易变得消极和评判，对吧？

>> 当时，我们都在努力工作，试图创造一些令人惊叹的东西。

>> 而且，你知道，我们一边做一边学习。

>> 我对社区非常感激。

>> 但我还要说的一件事是，虽然你可能一直在关注“哇，太棒了，让我们采用吧，让我们领先于潮流”。

>> 也有同样多的人在说，“你在说什么？Objective C 很好。如果没坏，就别修。”

>> 他们就像在挥舞拳头说，“我永远不会用新东西”，等等等等，然后他们写了很多关于 Swift 的坏话。

>> 所以，社区的重心转移花了相当长的时间。

>> >> 嗯，这是一个有趣的事实，2016 年我记得是 2016 年中期，或者可能稍早一点，Uber 是 iOS 上最大的移动优先公司之一，在 iOS 上成长，生活和呼吸 iOS，当然还有 Android。

>> 而且移动平台团队在 2016 年初进行了一项调查，距离 Swift 发布 2 年了。

>> 这是 Swift 1.2，说我们计划重写应用程序。重写是一件事。

>> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> 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>> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> >> 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你说它有很多功能，如果你学会如何控制它，你就可以玩转它。>>没错。Mojo让这一切变得非常容易，即使你是在CPU上。我喜欢它的一点是，他说，然后我读到Mojo对GPU来说真的很酷，我以前从未做过那种事。我对GPU一无所知，但我决定试一试，一个下午我就让我的东西在GPU上运行起来了，现在它快了一百万倍，现在我是一名GPU程序员了，对吧？所以对我来说，这非常赋能。这就是当你看到像CUDA这样的技术时，它们确实是了不起的系统，投入了大量的精力和出色的工作，但它已经有20年历史了。它是C++。它不是为现代架构设计的。今天的GPU有张量核心，而CUDA甚至无法真正识别它的存在，所以这对我们来说是一个巨大的机会，能让更多人进入这个领域，让人们第一次了解它。我的意思是，作为一个工程师，我不会编程GPU，但当然，我写的所有东西都运行在CPU、云端或其他任何地方。这让你想起你之前分享的关于Swift开发者的故事，因为我无法想象自己会说：“好吧，我要写CUDA。”我真的没有用例，但我完全可以想象自己只是添加一点Mojo进行优化，然后可能只是将其部署到GPU上，看看效果如何，如果我看到可以并行化的东西，就玩转它，看看它是否更快，然后就像创世一样。>>边做边学。>>是的，然后开始了解这些其他硬件，当然，如果我们知道它们现在也可用，并且可以在云端租用，那么它们可能会越来越有用。你很快就能按小时租用它们，也许不是今天，但我认为今天就可以。>>如果不能，那肯定会发生。>>是的，你完全可以做到。

嗯，我们甚至更进一步。事实证明，现在很多东西都有GPU，使用Mojo你可以在AMD、Nvidia和Apple的GPU上运行。所以如果你想了解GPU，你可以去我们的网站，搜索“GPU谜题”，我们会教你如何做到这一点。实际上，这是一个令人惊叹的时代。我喜欢它，>>因为我们正在做的事情，我们仍处于早期阶段。我们仍在建设中，我们希望能得到帮助。请加入我们的开源社区，帮助我们共同建设。但我们真正坚信的是，GPU和AI加速器，以及所有这些芯片，无论是用于AI、DNA测序、化学、生物信息学，还是石油和天然气勘探，所有这些高性能计算（HPC）领域，所有这些应用程序都可以使用这些加速器，但围绕它们的软件都非常奇怪，对吧？如果我们能简化它，如果我们能让它易于学习，如果我们能教导人们，如果我们能让它们在不同的硬件供应商之间保持一致，因为顺便说一句，这些硬件厂商并非总能和睦相处。但是，如果我们能让它更统一，那么我们就能在这个社区中获得一个更大的社区。当然，一些来自现有社区的老手会转变过来，我们对此很乐见。而且，你知道，Mojo比C++好用得多。所以从用户体验和编译时间来看，它都比CUDA等旧技术好得多。但我还相信，有一整代新人应该编程这些芯片。如果我们能让更多人进入这个生态系统，他们就能提升技能。他们就能获得更好的工作。这些都是高薪工作。所以现在是学习如何做这些事情的最佳时机，比以往任何时候都好。因此，我的毕生事业之一就是促成这一切，让人们进入这个生态系统，打破守门人制度。

而且，真的，你一直都对编译器技术充满热情，并且一直朝着这个方向努力。你能告诉我Modular作为一个团队的现状吗？你们大约三年前开始。你能告诉我你们取得了多少进展，团队现在有多大，Mojo和生态系统处于什么位置，以及你们接下来将重点关注什么吗？>>是的，是的。嗯，Modular将在明年一月满四年。这很难相信。事实证明，有些事情确实需要四年时间，所以……>>即使是全力以赴。>>是的。所以我们是一家不寻常的初创公司，我们进入这个领域时就知道这一点，但我们是一个非常庞大且非常昂贵的团队，因为我们和我们的投资者都相信，我们正在解决的这个问题非常重要。所以目前我们大约有140多人，我们已经支持了来自三家不同供应商的七种不同架构。包括AMD的Ampear Hopper Blackwell，Nvidia的300、325、355，以及他们所有的消费级产品，现在Apple的GPU也处于测试阶段并即将上线，这非常令人兴奋。我们可能还没有完成，我们会继续前进，但在时机成熟之前不能分享。但现在仍处于非常早期阶段。所以我们正在做的是从技术角度进行建设。例如，Mojo，我希望1.0版本是有意义的。所以我认为我们将在明年初夏发布1.0版本。那会很酷，而且会比Swift好得多。>>是的，但我正要说，这个1.0版本会……>>所以团队正在规划中。我们很快就会公布详细日期，并在适当的时候分享。所以当我们做这些的时候，我们正在深思熟虑，并从我之前的旅程以及团队中其他人的旅程中学习，以确保我们做得好。所以我们希望为生态系统提供稳定性，顺便说一句，Swift 1并没有做到这一点，并在此基础上进行建设。每次我们通过这些里程碑时，我们都可以期待更多的增长、更多的用例以及来自不同类型人群的更多投资。这就是我所看到的。所以商业上，我们有客户，并且正在扩大规模。我们有一个云平台，这是我们大部分业务的盈利方式。Mojo不是我们试图赚大钱的产品。顺便说一句，它是我们为了能够在大量硬件上扩展而必须构建的东西。所以我们看到了一个双重世界，我们既可以催化和发展，教人们如何构建和使用所有这些加速器，然后我们还可以帮助企业将AI构建和管理到他们的生态系统中。这些公司中的很多人都在寻找易于使用、实际有效、可靠且可扩展的东西。是的。他们很多人都希望在硬件上有选择性。他们希望能够为自己的工作负载购买最好的芯片。他们希望能够从不同的供应商那里获得多源产品。他们不想重写三次。

>>是的。我的意思是，这只有在你特别依赖一两个供应商（通常是一个）时才有意义。>>是的。所以，我所看到和预测的2026年，将会有来自许多不同供应商的大量芯片，我们希望确保人们能够有效地跨越这些平台进行扩展。所以，你知道，对于感兴趣的人，我们的网站上有很多招聘信息，我们正在快速增长，我们有一个非常宏伟的使命。这不会是再过六个月就完成的事情。我们仍处于起步阶段，我们旅程的每一年都只是另一个新的纪元，有新的东西需要构建、学习、成长和发展。

当然，你正在构建的听起来像是AI的基础设施，或者希望大部分都是。你的团队，特别是引擎团队，具体是如何使用AI工具的？无论是IDE、代理，你提到Mojo是编写AI的首选语言，但我对幕后很感兴趣，你是否看到了这些工具的影响？它是否帮助工程师工作更快，或者在当前情况下？因为总有这样的问题：如果你在编写编译器，这些东西会有帮助吗？还是说，你需要手工打造？我很想听听亲身经历过的人的看法。

>>是的。嗯，我能告诉你的是，我不能告诉你所有的事情，但我可以分享我的经验。所以我们确实鼓励我们的团队使用AI编码工具，所以使用Cloud Code、Cursor以及所有其他57种工具，这样就会有很多不同的体验。我看到了巨大的好处，所以对我来说，我仍然在编码，例如，我现在使用Cursor作为我的日常主力工具，我觉得它能为特别是机械性重写等工作带来大约10%的生产力提升。>>但你是一个非常优秀的程序员，所以这相当不错，很有意义。>>是的，我代表的是非常经验丰富的程序员，没错。是的。所以，我真的很喜欢它，因为它把我从很多机械性工作中解放出来，所以无论它是否让我总体上更高效，它都增加了我的乐趣，这很好。>>现在很重要。>>它确实如此。现在对于那些正在构建原型或产品经理正在构建线框模型的人来说，它具有变革性，因为你真的可以把一个人的效率提高十倍，你可以让他们构建出他们原本不会去做的事情。所以这对生产编码来说是具有变革性的。我认为它有点参差不齐。老实说，我不知道它是否真的是一个净收益，因为我看到很多情况下人们会说：“好吧，让代理去尝试一下。”然后它不断地运行和尝试，无数个token之后，它却不起作用。如果他们自己动手做，那会更快完成，对吧？所以对我来说，再次强调，有很多好处，但也有一些损失。所以我不知道最终结果会怎样。我确实知道它发展非常迅速，我确实希望我们能使用它。但是，我想说的另一件事是，我不想让人们关闭他们的大脑。我认为非常重要的一点是，我们团队的程序员，以及普遍的程序员，都将其用作人类辅助，而不是人类替代。我认为我们审查代码、理解架构非常重要。至少对于生产工作负载和生产应用程序来说，我有点……凭感觉编码让我感到恐惧。不仅仅是因为它对工作意味着什么，而是六个月后当你想改变某个东西的架构时，它意味着什么？>>是的。

你甚至如何理解任何东西是如何工作的，对吧？所以我确实认为让人类参与其中，让架构师思考问题并理解事物非常重要。不仅仅是为了安全和性能，还有所有其他原因。>>嗯，我与Eddie Osmani聊过，他已经在Chrome开发者工具团队工作了大约13年。我想他或他的团队在那里构建了很多工具，他说他写了一本书叫做《超越VIP编码》，他说他所做的是，他为代理启用了一种冗长的输出，他实际上会仔细阅读那个东西是什么，他确保在提交或审查之前，他理解了>>那里有什么，这样他就能始终保持联系，所以你知道，如果这个东西关闭了，他也能介入，就像他现在只是选择不这样做一样。>>嗯，我认为，我所关心的是生产架构，我的意思是原型是另一回事，但对于生产来说，你要保持架构清晰和正确，它不需要完美，但需要精心管理，因为我见过AI编码工具会疯狂地在不同地方复制东西，我们知道这是一个问题，因为当你想要改变某个东西时，如果你更新了三个地方中的两个，你就会出现bug，对吧？所以有很多这样的情况，工具很棒，但它们仍然需要成人监督。

所以，在招聘方面，你正在构建一些非常有趣、酷炫且坦率地说雄心勃勃的东西。你已经有一个相当大的团队，但你还在成长。你的招聘标准是什么？我想你之前提到过，你正在建立一个由精英极客组成的公司。我很想知道>>你在人们身上寻找什么特质？对于软件工程经验丰富的工程师，特别是那些正在听的人，你会建议他们采取什么策略或方法，才能达到可以在像Modular这样的地方获得机会的水平，即使不一定是Modular？

>>是的。所以，我们招聘两种不同类型的人。一种是超级专业化的，你知道，编译器极客之类的，或者是GPU程序员专家，他们知道如何进行高性能矩阵乘法，并且有10年的经验，所以你可以查看他们的履历。>>嗯，我们也招聘刚毕业的学生。>>哇，这令人耳目一新。>>所以我真的很欣赏那些职业生涯早期的人，因为他们还没有学到所有不好的东西。所以对我来说，我认为我们谈论的更有趣的事情可能不是那些已经是高级工程师的超级专家。而是那些职业生涯早期的人。所以我喜欢看到的是，我喜欢看到那些真正渴望成功的人。他们没有放弃，没有说AI会为我做一切，但他们有求知欲。>>他们当然愿意努力工作，对吧？但他们无所畏惧，因为特别是AI领域的一切都在迅速变化。但很多人会僵住，什么都不做，而如果你说：“好吧，太酷了。我们去弄明白。我想学习如何做这个。”我的意思是，这一直是我的毕生旅程，就是>>那听起来很可怕。人们告诉我这不可能，注定失败，但这能有多难呢？我们去弄明白，然后解决问题，然后去做。而且，我个人真的很喜欢那些为开源项目做出贡献的人。我认为这是证明你不仅能写代码，而且能与团队合作的最简单方式，这在现实中是软件工程中非常重要的一部分。所以，我喜欢人们以前做过的实习之类的。而且在与人交谈时，你可以判断他们是否对他们所做的事情感到兴奋，或者他们是否只是敷衍了事。嗯，现在一个真正具有挑战性的部分是，在面试中人们会非常紧张，所以我真正相信的一件事是给人们提供他们习惯使用的原生工具。所以，让人们以他们通常编码的方式进行编码，而且，例如，今天我们希望人们使用AI编码来处理机械性部分，对吧？所以说：“好吧，你必须在白板上写代码，你不能使用你的原生工具。”这会非常奇怪。所以我们尽量确保在某种程度上让人们接触到接近真实世界的情况。

我一直想问一个问题，因为你构建了几种语言，这个问题经常出现，我问过人们，他们想从你那里听到什么？这个问题被重复了很多次。你认为设计一种新语言，使其易于LLM编码，并且具有更好的模式匹配等属性，或者其他可能是LLM优势的东西，是否有任何逻辑？如果是这样，这些模式会是什么？这真的很奇怪，我没想到我们会谈论这样的事情，但现在我们应该谈谈。>>当然。我很乐意谈论它。所以有时我经常被问到，既然AI正在编写所有代码，你为什么还要构建一种编程语言呢？>>对吧？>>这是另一种问同样问题的方式，可能有点更具攻击性。所以对我来说，我根本不认为为LLM优化是正确的做法，>>因为回到我们刚才谈论的。重要的是阅读代码。顺便说一句，一直都是这样，对吧？代码被阅读的次数比编写的次数多。AI让生成代码比以往任何时候都容易得多。我不认为我们会回到过去。所以编写代码对我来说实际上不是关键。关键在于阅读它。所以Mojo以及我们正在构建的这些新兴系统，我所关心的是两者的结合。一是表达力。你是否能表达硬件的全部能力？是或否？如果答案是否定的，那么你永远无法实现它。所以JavaScript永远不会是编写CUDA内核或GPU内核的好方法。它就是不行，因为它无法表达你需要表达的东西，对吧？没有贬低它的意思。它是一个很好的系统，对吧？但如果这是目标，那么你现在就必须能够做到这一点。汇编代码可以表达硬件的全部能力，但这并不是我所提倡的，对吧？另一个与之相关的是你需要可读性，对吧？所以你需要这种结合，这种表达力之间的交集，也就是在我们这里，性能这个重要的事情，然后你是否能理解代码？你是否能构建抽象？你是否能构建可扩展的系统？我认为这个交集是关键。所以这就是你以Python语法为例的地方。Python非常容易阅读。它实际上非常标准化。很多人都知道它。让我们拥抱它。让我们全力以赴。这是一件好事。所以Mojo拥抱Python，至少是Python的语法，并说：“好吧，现在让我们解决Python的问题，这基本上是整个实现。让我们替换Python解释器以及所有这些东西。让我们保留这个好的部分，并使其能够表达硬件的全部能力。”有了这个，我认为LLM将继续越来越擅长处理任何奇怪之处。我所看到的是，LLM是学习新语言编码的绝佳方式。

是的，这很有趣，因为我感觉我们开始看到，包括在软件中，如何构建好的软件，通常对团队来说既好又高效的东西，LLM也往往能更好地处理它们。所以>>是的，我也会遇到这些有趣的问题。比如，很多人在代理编码循环中希望有错误消息反馈给代理，以便代理知道该怎么做，那么我们是否应该为代理制作更好的错误消息？>>让它对人类更好。>>我的问题是，对代理更好的东西，难道不也对人类更好吗？我们只要有好的错误消息就行了，对吧？另一个关键点，我认为对于基于LLM的编码和AI工具来说最重要的一点是拥有大量的开源代码。所以对我们来说，如果你去Modular的代码库，我们有，我不知道，70万行Mojo代码，那是开源的。>>而且当你开源它时，你也会开源它的整个历史记录，顺便说一句。>>没错。没错。所以这非常强大，因为现在你可以说：“嘿，去索引这个。”>>是的。>>所以现在它知道你可以做的所有事情的巨大信息量。所以这我认为也非常重要。

是的。现在最后，你在这里多次提到编译器很酷。>>我承认我有点偏见。>>当然。但我越来越相信编译器很酷。对于那些没有构建或使用过编译器的软件工程师。你会给他们什么建议，比如：“嘿，我想了解编译器，也许想构建一个。我应该尝试设计一种语言吗？”你会指引人们去做些什么？

>>是的。所以，我来告诉你我为什么爱上编译器。回到大学时，我学习的是标准的计算机科学课程，包括基础编程，然后是数据结构，然后是操作系统课程和GUI课程等等。我喜欢编译器的一点是，你构建了项目一。在这种情况下，它是一个叫做词法分析器的东西，它将源代码标记化。而且你必须使用一些数据结构。所以我想：“哦，好吧，太酷了。我正在使用我学到的东西，不仅仅是如何编写代码，还有什么是树之类的。”然后你进入第二部分，并在其基础上构建。所以现在你构建了一个语法分析器，它使用词法分析器来决定语言的语法。然后你构建类型检查器。你建立在前两个的基础上。然后你构建下一个东西，并建立在那些东西的基础上。所以我喜欢编译器这门课的原因是，我能够构建、学习和迭代，然后如果我犯了错误，我必须回去修复它，因为你正在越建越高。所以我认为编译器，特别是在大学环境中，更能反映真实的软件开发，而我经历过的许多其他课程则不然，因为许多其他课程最终都是构建一个东西，提交，然后丢弃，构建另一个东西，提交，然后丢弃。所以这就是我爱上它的原因。

嗯，今天如果你想学习编译器，比以往任何时候都容易，你可以去LLVM。有一个很棒的教程叫做万花筒教程，我写的，很棒，>>大概15年前写的吧。很久以前了。Rust社区有很多可爱的编译器极客，所以现在很多基于编译器的技术都是用Rust构建的，这也超级酷。嗯，所以有书、课程之类的东西。我并不是真的认为每个人都需要成为编译器工程师，但我认为编译器没有得到应有的认可，而且事实证明，编译器领域有很多非常好的工作，所以如果它恰好是一个有趣的地方和一套有趣的技术，那么我真的鼓励人们去做，因为我们这个领域需要更多的人。太棒了。Chris，这真的非常非常有趣。>>是的，>>学到了很多。谢谢你。>>是的。嗯，谢谢你邀请我。我希望它有用。>>确实如此。很少能和像Chris这样对编程充满热情[音乐]的软件工程师交谈。我希望你和我一样喜欢这次对话。我特别喜欢Chris带我们了解苹果公司幕后真实发生的事情。Chris自己的固执和完成任务的记录[音乐]是如何让他推动事情进展的，比如开源Swift编程语言和从头开始创建新语言？想了解更多关于AI工程、故事以及其他公司开发者工具的深入探讨，请查看我在下方节目说明中链接的《务实的工程师》中的深入探讨。如果你喜欢这个播客，请在你喜欢的播客平台和YouTube上订阅。如果你也给节目评分，特别感谢。谢谢，下期再见。