Black Athena Vol. 1 - AfroAsiatic Roots of Civilization - Fabrications Of Ancient Greece

Greetings in peace. I hope you and yours are doing well today, wherever you might be watching this from. And I hope all of you and yours are having a wonderful month of June 2024.

I would like to start this with Assalamu alaykum, peace be with you and yours, and also in the name of Allah, the Beneficent, the Most Merciful.

I was told to read this book by my Sheikh of the Nūrfīyah Sufi Order, Sheikh Wahid Al-Black Athena, and give its teachings to the world. What I learned in this book is always prevalent to the work that I've done as well, even being involved with Western Freemasonry. I'm currently resigned in good standing and left honorably. But yes, it's the same concept of the lies we've been told in history that only makes the Western white men look good and feel good, right? They accomplished everything, they did everything, while the East never gets any credit.

So, I've dealt with my own Crusade, per se, even in the Masonic world by putting out the stuff on Islam and Freemasonry, showing the Eastern origins and Middle Eastern origins of Freemasonry with my latest presentation of the secret sex of Syria and Lebanon. So please go to my playlist, and you will see the respective work that's there to view at your own convenience and pleasure.

But yes, even the stuff that we see with, uh, Greece and the Afroasiatic civilizations not getting any credit is something that I would like to cover in this book as well, from what I've learned from Martin Bernal. And again, this is a white man who's written this book, so there you have that. I will cover this and dedicate this to my Sheikh. So before I get into the teachings of the book, I'll talk a little bit about Mr. Bernal and who he was, and then get into the book directly.

Martin Bernal was a British scholar known for his controversial work *Black Athena: The Afroasiatic Roots of Classical Civilization*. In this multivolume study, Bernal argued that ancient Greece was heavily influenced by Egyptian and Phoenician civilizations, and that this influence was largely ignored or suppressed by traditional Western scholarship. His work sparked significant debate and controversy within the academic community regarding the origins of classical civilization and the nature of historical interpretation.

Mr. Bernal was born on March 10, 1937, in London, England. He was a scholar and professor of Government at Cornell University. Bernal is best known for his controversial work *Black Athena*, in which he argued that the roots of classical civilization in ancient Greece were Afroasiatic, influenced by Egyptian and Phoenician cultures. Bernal was educated at King's College, Cambridge, and University College in London. He taught at Cornell University from 1959 until his retirement in 2001. Aside from *Black Athena*, Mr. Bernal wrote on a variety of topics, including Chinese politics, ancient history, and the history of anti-Semitism. Throughout his career, Bernal was a provocative and influential figure in the fields of classical history and cultural studies. He passed away on June 9, 2013, leaving behind a legacy of scholarly inquiry and debates. And I dedicate this to Mr. Bernal's memory as well.

Now, *Volume One of the Black Athena Trilogy* is the first installment in Martin Bernal's controversial trilogy. In this book, Bernal challenges the traditional Eurocentric view of the origins of ancient Greek civilization. He argues that ancient Greece was significantly influenced by the cultures of Egypt and Phoenicia, which were part of the Afroasiatic linguistic family. Bernal contends that—and he fought against that—the contributions of these non-European cultures to Greek civilization have been downplayed or ignored by mainstream Western scholarship. He delves into the various aspects of Greek culture, including language, religion, and philosophy, to demonstrate the profound influence of Egyptian and Phoenician civilizations.

The book sparked intense debate within the academic community for obvious reasons, with some scholars praising Bernal for challenging established narratives and others criticizing his methodology and conclusions. Despite all of the controversy, this book remains a seminal work in the fields of classical history and cultural study, prompting scholars to reevaluate their understanding of the origins of Western Civilization.

Mr. Bernal explores the influence of Afroasiatic cultures on classical civilizations, suppressed for racist reasons. Martin Bernal, a Cornell University professor, challenges traditional views, highlighting the racism in scholarship. *Black Athena* discusses past scholarly views molded by political environments, forcing a re-evaluation of the roots of Western Civilization. Bernal's work disrupts the Eurocentric narrative, shedding light on overlooked influences from Africa and the Middle East.

The book discusses the differences in transcriptions of sounds and letters in various ancient languages, such as Canaanite, Arabic, Greek, and Hebrew. It explores different models of Greek history, particularly the Aryan and Ancient models. Mr. Bernal argues for the Revised Ancient Model, which suggests a combination of Egyptian and Phoenician colonization and Indo-European influences in Greek civilizations. The book also delves into the challenges of questioning conventional paradigms in academic disciplines and the influence of religious and cultural reverence on the study of ancient languages and cultures.

Comparative work on Greek mythology and culture primarily follows the guidelines set by Carl Otfried Müller, who opposed recognizing any borrowings from the East. Linguistic and cultural connections between Greek, Egyptian, and Semitic languages are often overlooked. Outsiders may offer fresh perspectives and challenge traditional paradigms, as seen with Schliemann's discoveries. Lay persons should differentiate between constructive critics and cranks by considering if they add or remove unknown factors. The revival of the Ancient Model eliminates certain assumptions of the Aryan Model, leading to new hypotheses.

The dominance of "prog" and science paradigms in the 19th and 20th centuries has shaped scholarly approaches to historiography. The book discusses the lack of methodology soundness in historical studies, contrasting pre-scientific and scientific historians. It questions the requirements of "proof" in historical studies and highlights the fallacy of archaeological positivism. The book argues in favor of considering all sources of evidence, not just archaeological findings, in historical research.

It provides a background on the development of language families and the spread of Afroasiatic cultures at the end of the last ice age. The book also outlines the contents of the following volumes in the series related to the study of ancient Greece.

Further, the book discusses the origins and spread of civilization in Mesopotamia and the development of Indo-European languages. It suggests that civilization began in Mesopotamia, with writing being a key factor. The book also explores the spread of the Indo-Hittite languages from Central Asia and the Anatolian languages into Anatolia in modern-day Turkey. Additionally, it considers the expansion of Afroasiatic languages and Indo-Hittites with agriculture in different regions. The book highlights the importance of water travel for communication and trade and the influence of Mesopotamia on Egyptian civilization.

And this part of the book concludes by discussing the development of civilization in the third millennium, demonstrating cultural interactions between various regions. The Aegean developments in the third millennium BC may have been influenced by the Levantine trade and literacy, despite the lack of written evidence in the region at the time. The script dialects found in Linear A, Linear B, and Cypriot syllabaries suggest a common prototype from the third millennium, allowing for their development in the fourth.

The breakdown of early Bronze Age civilization in the 23rd century BC may have been caused by climate deterioration or the deteriorating climate at that time, resulting in barbarian invasions and social revolt. Contact between the Aegean and the Near East during that time likely introduced Egyptian and Semitic cultural elements into the region. Egyptian influences in the Aegean can be seen in the bull cult, possibly reflecting the rise of the Egyptian Middle Kingdom in the 21st century BC. The influence of the 12th Dynasty in Egypt on bull cults around the Aegean and the expeditions of Pharaoh Senusret I and Amenemhat II have been supported by recent discoveries.

The Hyksos period from 1720 to 1575 BC also brought significant influences to the Aegean region. The book discusses the Hyksos invasion, linking Egyptian, biblical, and Greek traditions. It proposes revisions to the Ancient Model timeline, associating Danaos and Kadmos with the Hyksos. The formation of the Greek language, influences from Egypt and Semitic languages, and Egyptian influence on Spartan society are highlighted in this book. The 18th Dynasty's influence on the Aegean and the introduction of Dionysian cults to Greece are discussed. The Dorian invasion and Egyptian and Phoenician lineage claims by the Dorians are analyzed.

Mr. Bernal also mentions future volumes discussing Egyptian influence on Spartan society and the introduction of the Orphic cults to Greece. And this book also touches upon the attitude of Church Fathers towards Egypt and the transformation of Egyptian religion into philosophy by Christian thinkers in the Middle Ages and Renaissance. The belief in the influence of Egyptian philosophy on Greek thought prevailed, leading to the study and translation of Hermetic texts. Copernicus and Giordano Bruno were influenced by this Egyptian Hermetic tradition. Freemasons and Enlightenment thinkers admired Egypt for its rational rule and ancient philosophy. However, the French Revolution and radical Masonic beliefs posed a threat to Christianity, leading figures like Newton and Bentley to diminish Egypt's importance and promote Greek superiority.

The 18th century also saw the rise of racism and Romanticism, influencing European exploration and human racial classification. This shift in paradigm favored Greek over Egyptian influence, leading to the devaluation of Egypt in European thought. Blumenbach at Göttingen University pioneered modern disciplinary scholarship in the 18th century Romanticism movement, which emphasized ethnicity and racial superiority. The rise of the Aryan Model in England in the 19th century marked a shift towards viewing history as the biographies of races. The Ancient Model was challenged by attacks on Egyptian significance and the promotion of Greek creativity, reflecting the era's Christian Revival and Romanticism. This transition also involved discrediting ancient references to Egypt and weakening those concerning the Phoenicians. Ultimately, the concept of Egypt as the cradle of civilization persisted despite academic dismissal.

Further, the book discusses the belief in the superiority of European or Aryan races and the dismissal of Phoenician influence on Greek civilization. Scholars viewed European races as the most powerful and progressive, while considering Semitic cultures as inferior. Anti-Semitism in the 19th and 20th centuries led to the elimination of Phoenician influence on Greece, with the alphabet being the only acknowledged contribution. The extreme Aryan Model was established in the 19th century but faced criticism post-World War II, leading to a return to the broad Aryan Model. Ancient history and anti-Semitic beliefs influenced scholarly views on racial purity and conquest throughout history.

The acceptance of Jews as Europeans and the rise of Jewish confidence in their Semitic roots led scholars like Cyrus Gordon and Michael Astour to champion West Semitic civilization over the extreme Aryan Model. Gordon's work on Ugarit and Crete challenged traditional beliefs in European uniqueness, as did Astour's book on parallels between Semitic and Greek mythology. Despite criticism, their work has influenced a shift towards the broad Aryan Model by 1985, which acknowledges West Semitic settlements in Greece and Phoenician influence before the 8th century BC. However, Gordon and Astour have not challenged the Aryan Model itself, nor have they explored possible Egyptian influences on Greek civilization. Other scholars, such as Siegfried Morenz and G.E.M. James, have made similar claims of Egyptian influence, although these ideas have not gained mainstream scholarly acceptance yet.

The fabrication of ancient Greece predicts a return to an Ancient Model of Greek civilization by the next century. This discussion offers a critical analysis of the comparison between the Aryan and Ancient Models of Greek civilization and the documentation supporting each perspective.

The BC Queen, a Ahhotep, if I'm saying her name correctly, mother of the first Pharaoh of the 18th Dynasty, likely came from the Aegean region. The interchanging of populations between Egypt and the Aegean is evident in various documents and inscriptions from the 17th to 14th centuries BC, suggesting close contact and population mixtures. The eruption of Thera, dated around 1626 BC, had a significant impact on various regions, including China and Egypt. The Revised Ancient Model proposes settlements in the Aegean starting in the late 18th century BC, contradicting the previous Ancient Model's timeline. The explosion at Thera requires an adjustment in the absolute dates for different periods in history, such as the Cretan ceramic periods and the shaft graves in mainland Greece. This challenges the traditional narrative of the heroic age beginning with the Egyptian expulsions of the Hyksos in the 16th century BC, as the archaeological evidence does not fully align with this timeline.

The Hyksos gained control of Lower Egypt earlier than believed, possibly connected to Egypt's expulsions of the Hyksos and the Israelite Exodus. Archaeological evidence suggests Hyksos invasions of the Aegean and cultural exchange in the late 18th century. There is debate over the influence of the Hyksos on Greek culture, with some arguing for lasting effects. The linguistic borrowing between Egyptian, Semitic, and Greek languages over a long time span is discussed in this book, with phonetic correspondences indicating widespread borrowing. Despite challenges in reconstructing vowels and consonantal structure, external evidence supports the idea of significant linguistic borrowing between the languages.

Mr. Bernal suggests looking for Egyptian and Semitic etymologies of Greek forms, cautioning to explain Greek vocabulary that Indo-European etymologies cannot account for. The similarities between certain Greek and Egyptian place names, especially in terms of semantics, raise questions among scholars about potential connections. The Aryan Model struggles to explain Greek toponyms due to their limited Indo-European origins. The prevalence of certain suffixes in Greek place names has led to theories about early Bronze Age settlements, but these lack solid archaeological or toponymic evidence. The substratum Model offers alternative explanations for these suffixes and proposes Semitic origins for some Greek toponyms. The connection between Greek and Semitic city names further supports the idea of cultural exchanges beyond trade routes. The potential Egyptian origins of Greek city names and the correlation between Egyptian and Greek deities suggest a long history of cultural exchanges between the two civilizations. The city of Sais was known as the Temple or House of Neith, with potential Greek and Coptic connections. Neith and Athena were seen as the same goddess in ancient times, with iconographic similarities.

The art, linguistic, and cultural connections between Egypt and Sparta, with Egyptian influence on Spartan politics and beliefs. The chapter on linguistic relationships explores the possibility of a common proto-language between Afroasiatic and Indo-European languages. The book also discusses linguistic convergence and changes in ancient languages, especially in the ancient Near East. The development of the definite article in languages like late Egyptian is explored as well.

Mr. Bernal discusses linguistic influences between Afroasiatic and Indo-European languages in the second millennium BC, focusing on the development of the definite article in Greek and Latin and the breakdown of the *labars*. Mr. Bernal suggests that the Greek article may have been borrowed from the Levant and discusses the interaction between West Semitic and Greek cultures. The book also explores the borrowing of words like *gum* and *dier* between languages before and after the breakdown of the *labars*. The chapters on linguistic borrowings from West Semitic and Egyptian analyze syntax, morphology, and verbal loans, highlighting the influence of other languages on Greek vocabulary and morphology. The book discusses the importance of Semitic and Egyptian etymologies in Greek languages, with examples such as *haima* and *kudos*. It argues that the Ancient Model, not the Aryan Model, best explains these influences. The Egyptian origins of Greek words like *seos* and *marar* are highlighted, suggesting significant cultural influence. The conclusion supports the view that the Ancient Model provides a more plausible explanation for the linguistic evidence in the book, challenging the prevalence of the Aryan Model.

Further, the discussion is there on the influence of Egyptian religious cults on Crete, including the bull cult of the Minotaur and other bull cults. It also explores the confusion between Ram and goat cults in Egypt and Greece, as well as the goddess Aphrodite's potential Egyptian origins. The chapter on beauty delves into the connection between Aphrodite and the Egyptian goddess Wadjit, while the following chapter on the Beast focuses on the deity Seth. Overall, the book in this part of the chapter highlights the complex interplay between Egyptian and Greek mythology in shaping religious beliefs and practices in the ancient world.

The god of the wildernesses, volcanoes, and seas in different mythologies is compared, specifically focusing on Seth and Poseidon as potential counterparts. The etymology of Poseidon is proposed to be related to the Semitic god Sedon. The similarities between Apollo and Artemis and Egyptian deities like Horus and Harpocrates, suggesting a connection between the two mythologies. The introduction of solar myths during the Hyksos period and the influence of Egyptian and Semitic cultures are discussed. The Eleusinian Mysteries are linked to Egyptian cults, with evidence suggesting an Egyptian foundation for the Greek cult despite differences. The similarities between the Osiris Mysteries and the Eleusinian story imply an Egyptian origin for the Greek Mysteries. Dionysus and Demeter are closely connected in Greek mythology, and parallels can be found in Egyptian myths. Nephthys, sister of Isis, mirrors Pan's dual nature. Egyptian myths influenced Greek mystery cults and belief in immortality. The Orphic cult, linked to Pythagoreanism, may have Egyptian origins. The Orphic emphasis on metempsychosis and vegetarianism, Egyptian beliefs, Orpheus's connection to Geb of Egypt, and his cult's similarities to Egyptian practices suggest an Egyptian influence. Greek beliefs in Egypt as a source of their religion are explored in this book. The comparison between Greek and Egyptian religion suggests a cultural exchange during the same era in the same region.

The goal of solving the riddle of the Sphinx, or solving its riddle, is to challenge Eurocentric beliefs and open new avenues of research. The name Larisa likely originated from the Egyptian toponym "entry into the fertile lands," possibly referring to the Hyksos' capital Avaris in the Eastern Nile Delta, known for its rich soil. The connection between Larisa and the term "entry into the fertile lands," its Egyptian equivalent, is strong. The Homeric epithet for Larisa, *alaseia*, also suggests deep soil. Strabo noted that all Greek *Larisa* were on alluvial soil. The Peloponnesian Acropolis was called Larisa, which connected to "flat land" in Greek. The Pelasgians, or Pelasgians, believed to be the earliest Greek-speaking inhabitants of Crete, were linked to the Pelasgi and spoke a Hellenic language. They were found in various regions in Greece, with Herodotus claiming they were distinct from the Dorians and not originally Greek-speaking. The Pelasgians were gradually assimilated by the Hellenes, with mythology suggesting Egyptian influence. Later writers like Aeschylus and Euripides identified Pelasgians with Hellenes and their practices as Hellenic. Strabo and Pausanias also discussed Pelasgians, emphasizing their connection to regions like Arcadia, ancient and modern. Scholars have struggled to interpret the diverse references to Pelasgians in Greek history. The book discusses the theories surrounding the Pelasgians and their connection to the Hellenes, focusing on the Ancient Model and Aryan conquest ideas. The Pelasgians are seen as unassimilated native Greeks in the Ancient Model, with ties to Indo-European speaking peoples colonized by Egypto-Phoenician invasions. The Achaeans were linked to the Pelasgians and believed to have origins in Egypt, leading to the theory that their name comes from the Egyptian term for barbarians. Overall, this part of the book explores the complex relationships and influences among different ancient Greek tribes, highlighting the difficulties in understanding their origins and connections.

The connection between Poseidon and the Ionians is emphasized in the Revised Ancient Model, which explains the name *Zeus* and *Ionian*. The book focuses on Cadmus's colonization of Thebes and Danaos's relationship with Argos. The timeline of Homer and Hesiod is debated, with arguments for a later date, placing them in the 8th and 7th centuries BC, due to archaeological evidence of Phoenician presence in Greece before the 9th century. The influence of Near Eastern models and Hesiod's *Theogony* is also discussed, and the challenges to the traditional dating of Homer and Hesiod are found to be weak by the author. Hellenistic belief in *Hesiod* predating Homer is evident in the oldest Greek traditions containing traces of Egyptian and Phoenician colonization legends. Aeschylus's *The Suppliants* highlights the arrival of Danaos's daughters in Argos fleeing Egypt and facing Egyptian sons. The play reflects Hellenic nationalism and xenophobic sentiments following the Persian Wars. Egyptian and Semitic influences are present in the myth cycle, seen in motifs, references to Egyptian deities, and proper names. Scholar Frederick L. argues for the complexity and deeper meaning in classical texts, suggesting puns and wordplay reveal profound connections and truths. The supplicants' use of language and motifs indicate a rich interplay of meaning beyond surface interpretations. The name *Aegyptus* in the play has dual meanings: "sees" and "caress." The name *Apia* has connections to Egypt, Greek *apous* (bull), and *ios* (son). *Aegyptus*, *Danaus*, and their descendants also have strong Egyptian associations with possible Egyptian and Semitic etymologies. The names in *The Suppliants* show intricate parallels between Greek and Egyptian cultures. Io's name has Egyptian origins related to the moon and cow symbolism. Other descendants like Belus and Phoroneus also have Semitic and Greek connections. *Aegyptus*'s name has associations with the Egyptian capital of Memphis. Danaus, his twin, also has a similar origin in Mycenaean Greece. The origins of the name Danaos and its connection with the Danai tribe in the Aegean region is discussed, with possible links to Semitic roots. The legends surrounding Danaos's arrival in Greece from Egypt are explored, with references to Egyptian, Semitic, and Greek puns and wordplay. The belief in the arrival of Danaos and the Hyksos colonization in Argos is further emphasized in Aeschylus's play and Herodotus's histories.

The history of Herodotus highlights the influence of Egyptian and Phoenician civilizations in Greece. Danaos and Cadmus's role in introducing various cultural aspects to Greece is examined, with Musaeus credited for bringing Dionysian worship from Egypt. Herodotus's belief in the importance of Near Eastern civilization into Greece is mentioned and highlighted, emphasizing the influence of Egyptian and Phoenician gods and practices on Greek culture. The Pelasgians sought advice from the Oracle at Dodona about adopting foreign names, which they were advised to do. Herodotus introduced Near Eastern ideas in Greece, including those from Egypt and Libya. Herodotus was criticized for his beliefs by Plutarch, but his reasoning behind cultural borrowings from the East showed a method of competitiveness and a reason rather than blind faith. Thucydides omitted mention of Danaos and Cadmus in his historical account, possibly due to his nationalism and temporal chauvinism. Isocrates promoted Panhellenism and Greek cultural pride, acknowledging the influence of figures like Danaos and Cadmus, while also admiring Egypt's caste system. Plato believed that Greek philosophy, especially in his works such as *The Republic*, was heavily influenced by Egyptian wisdom and institutions, as evidenced by similarities in the concept of division of labor and education among enlightened rulers. He also hinted at a historic relationship between Athens and Egypt, suggesting that Greek culture had been influenced by Egyptian teachings and that Egypt preserved ancient knowledge that Greece had lost due to past disasters. Plato's connection to Egypt was further strengthened by his references to the Egyptian god Thoth and his praise for Egyptian art and music. Despite some modern scholars denying a direct link between Plato's work and Egypt, early scholars and thinkers like Marx believed that Plato's *Republic* was an idealization of the Egyptian caste system.

The book discusses the influences of Egyptian civilization on Greek intellectual figures like Isocrates, Plato, and Aristotle. It highlights the belief in foreign colonization and cultural borrowing from Egypt and the Levant in the formation of Hellenic civilization. The book also mentions Aristotle's admiration for Egyptian knowledge, including the invention of mathematical arts by Egyptian priests. Additionally, the book discusses the theories of colonization and later borrowing in the Hellenistic world, including references to Egyptian and Phoenician colonizations in Greece. The tension between Greek cultural pride and respect for ancient civilizations is also explored, with a focus on Diodorus Siculus's belief in Egypt as the basically the fount of world civilization and his mention of legendary landings in the Western Peloponnese and Thebes. References to Egyptian influence on Athens and the presence of Egyptians in the Argolid provide further evidence of the interconnectedness of Greek and Egyptian cultures. Plutarch criticizes Herodotus for claiming Greek culture came from Egypt, but modern scholars prefer ancient sources. Greek worship of Egyptian gods began before Alexander the Great, who believed himself to be a son of Ammon. His conquests spread Egyptian religion, showing its importance. The worship of Egyptian gods continued in Greece even after Alexander's death, indicating a conquest of the accident by Oriental religion. Greece under Roman rule saw a surge in Egyptian religion, with emperors like Domitian and Hadrian showing great devotion. Plutarch's work highlighted the symbolic nature of Egyptian worship, aligning it with Greek philosophy. Despite some Greek criticism of Egyptian practices, Plutarch and other scholars believed in the unity of Egyptian and Greek religion. Plutarch identified cultural and religious similarities between Egyptian and Greek gods. The view of Egyptian religion influenced major literary works of the time. A shift towards Egyptian rites led to a decline in Greek practices, and this specific chapter emphasizes the conventional belief in ancient times of Egyptian religion's superiority over others, contrasting with modern perspectives.

Further, the book explores the influence of ancient Egypt on Greek institutions and the collapse of Egyptian religion. It discusses the murder of Hypatia, the collapse of Egyptian paganism, and the rise of Christianity. The chapter also examines social factors in the emergence of Christianity as a monotheistic belief system, and this specific part highlights the belief in a new age and the sense of apocalypse in the 2nd century.

Mr. Bernal further discusses the role of messianism in the Jewish tradition, particularly in relation to political events such as the attacks on Parthia. It also highlights the astrological shift from Aries to Pisces and its significance in Virgil's Fourth Eclogue. The importance of stars in associating with leaders and astronomical movements, as well as the use of fish symbolism in Christianity, is also explored. The book also shows the emphasis of the self-destructive force of astronomical changes on Egyptian religion in the 2nd century AD.

Further, Mr. Bernal discusses the decline of Egyptian religion, with gods abandoning Egypt, leading to the rise of other religions. Late Antiquity saw the survival of Egyptian beliefs in Hermeticism, Neoplatonism, and Gnosticism. These groups believed in a hidden God and the potential divinity of man, influenced by Egyptian beliefs. They practiced secrecy and ideology of reaching divinity through gnosis. Stars and planets played a role in their beliefs, with the idea of transcending them to reach the ideal realm. Gnostics challenged the Orthodox Church's belief in freedom and opposed hierarchy. And the book also explores the complexities of these beliefs and their influence on religious thought. And even in many fraternities and groups, you'll have the reverence for Egyptian rites or other kinds of rites which are linked back to Egypt, and many of these fraternities and societies, you will always see either sphinxes in their entrances or you'll see an obelisk. So that's another connection right there.

Scholars have distinguished between Hermeticism *savant* and Hermeticism *popular*, highlighting the contrast between the philosophy of Hermetic texts and magic. The origins of Hermeticism, Neoplatonism, and Gnosticism are debated, with different views on Egyptian influence and dating. Scholars argue about the connections between Hermeticism, Platonism, Christianity, and the Greek influences on the Hermetic Corpus. The debate continues on the age and the Egyptian origins of the Hermetic texts, with some scholars placing them back to the 3rd century BC. The argument also delves into the possible Persian origins of Hermeticism and its relation to Egyptian thought, challenging traditional views. Mesopotamian influences on early Egyptian religion, particularly during the Persian occupations, challenged the extent of Eastern influence on Ptolemaic Egypt's religion, or when the Ptolemies were in charge, despite Cumont's claims. Sir Flinders Petrie's arguments for dating the Hermetic texts to the Persian period were dismissed due to the Aryan Model's ideological bias towards Greek superiority. Recent discoveries linking Thoth to Hermes Trismegistus support the antiquity of the Hermetic Corpus. The belief that ancient Egyptians were not capable of philosophical thought is challenged by the Memphite Theology's abstracts cosmogeny. Thoth's role as the master of communication, writing, and magic indicates a deep-rooted Egyptian tradition that continued into Ptolemaic times. Two deities from the 19th Dynasty have been found with a formal cult of Hermanubis, Hermanubis appearing in Egyptian religion during Ptolemaic times. The relationship of Hermes in Greek religion, combining the roles of thought and Anubis, is unclear. Hermes Trismegistus could play multiple roles in theology, with later traditions showing him as a philosopher and moral teacher. The *euhemerism* of turning gods into sages can be seen in early references to Thoth and Hermes. The Hermetic Corpus, likely composed from the 6th century BC to the 2nd century AD, contains older religious and philosophical concepts, fundamentally Egyptian. Greek influences are present, but Pythagorean and Platonic philosophy were heavily dependent on Egyptian thought. Hermes Trismegistus survived in Christianity and Islam, with *euhemerisms* and theisms diminishing pagan gods in early Christian times. The incorporation of Egyptian deities into Christianity, the influence of Hermes Trismegistus in Islam, the relationship between Jewish sects and early Christian monastics, and the intertwining of Hermeticism and Kabbalistic mysticism during the Renaissance are key points in the development of mystical traditions in different religions. The survival of secretive mystic sects despite persecution and the development of Jewish mysticism from Egypt to Babylonia and Europe are also discussed by Mr. Bernal, highlighting the continuity of mystical traditions over time.

The dualistic beliefs of Catharism and Languedoc in Provence, influenced by Hermetic traditions, indicate the extraordinary social and cultural milieu of the region during the 12th and 13th centuries. Kabbalah is an esoteric study that rejects historical and orthodox readings of the Bible in favor of an inner mystic interpretation. It focuses on the cosmic struggle to reconstitute primeval light. Kabbalists contemplate the throne, chariot, and name of God, leading to ecstasy. The movement shares similarities with Hermeticism, including trinities, hidden gods, and man as the measure of all things. Kabbalists were known for their expertise in astrology, medicine, and magic.

The Renaissance in Byzantium and Western Europe saw a resurgence in interest in Hermeticism and Neoplatonism, with a focus on Egyptian hieroglyphics. The Renaissance passion for Egypt stemmed from its ancient reputation for wisdom and arts. Renaissance thinkers believed Egypt to be the source of all knowledge, preceding Greece and Rome. They were searching for the origins of wisdom, attributing significance to Egyptian mysteries and symbols. In the 15th century, Cosimo de' Medici directed scholars to translate the *Corpus Hermeticum* before Plato's works, setting the stage for a resurgence of interest in ancient Egyptian and Hermetic texts, influencing the Renaissance *eclogues* in the 16th centuries. Thinkers like Pico della Mirandola merged Kabbalah with Hermeticism to create a mystical basis for Christianity. The influence of Egyptian philosophy and magic continued, particularly in the work of Tommaso Campanella. Francis Yates argues that Copernicus was influenced by Neoplatonism and Hermetic thought. Despite initial doubts, the Hermetic texts remained popular through numerous editions, reflecting a continued interest in Egyptian wisdom among Europeans. The Renaissance admiration for Egypt and the Orient caused discomfort for later scholars but highlights a significant aspect of the era's cultural impact. Francis Yates studied Renaissance Hermeticism and the Aryan Model, focusing on the impact of Egyptian Hermeticism on 15th and 16th century Italy. Giordano Bruno stood out as a pioneer who went beyond Christianity and Judaism to embrace Egyptian paganism. The failure of the Counter-Reformation and religious wars in late 16th century Europe fueled Bruno's intellectual radicalism. The association of Egypt with wisdom continued into the 18th century, particularly in Freemasonry. Isaac Casaubon's critique of the Hermetic texts in the 17th century did not diminish Egypt's reputation. The Hermetic texts were deemed derivative by scholars like Casaubon, but their value as sources for Egyptian wisdom persists. Modern scholars have not fully addressed the historical context of the Hermetic texts. The similarities between the Hermetic texts, Plato's works, and the New Testament can be explained by the common influences of the late Egyptian religion and ideas from other cultures in the Eastern Mediterranean. Hermeticism in Egypt continued to be influential in the 17th century despite Casaubon's criticism. The *Aurelian* cure and the Rosicrucians were key figures in promoting Hermetic ideas. The Cambridge Platonists, including Isaac Newton, believed in the value of Hermetic texts. Newton, in particular, sought to retrieve ancient Egyptian wisdom to support his scientific theories. The pursuit of ancient knowledge continued to shape scientific thought in the 17th century.

The book further discusses conventional 17th century views on astronomy, ancient civilizations, and language origins, focusing on Newton's beliefs about ancient Egypt and Hebrew language connections. The 18th century *Egyptomania* trend, exemplified by Fénelon and Abbé Pluche, is highlighted, along with the belief in Egyptian influence on Greek culture. This led to new scholarly studies, such as Barthel's work on language relationships, laying the foundation for Afroasiatic studies. The book emphasizes the shift from mystical to non-mystical scholarship regarding ancient civilizations and languages, highlighting the significance of Egypt and Phoenicia during the 18th century. Egypt was seen as a central and important civilization by European scholars and thinkers, while Physiocrats admired China for its rational administration. Freemasons preferred Egypt, seeing a connection between ancient Egyptian culture and their own mystical beliefs. The radical Enlightenment in England also embraced ideas from the Rosicrucian and Masonic traditions, promoting tolerance for various beliefs while advocating for intellectual and political power in the hands of the enlightened few. Thinkers like John Toland drew inspiration from Bruno and Newton, incorporating cosmological ideas into their philosophies. Overall, Egypt and China were viewed as advanced civilizations, influencing European thought and culture during this time.

John Toland's ideas were revolutionary, as he recognized England did not need a king. He played a central role in shaping speculative masonry's rites and theology, which evolved after merging with Rosicrucian groups in 1717. Despite facing opposition from figures like William Whiston, Toland's radical Enlightenment ideas persisted in masonry, rooted in Neoplatonism and elitism. The concept of *Jachin-Boaz*, a triple name linked to Egyptian wisdom, underpinned Masonic belief. Freemasonry's affinity for Egypt is evident in its temple architecture and symbols, reflecting the craft's claims to be heirs to Egyptian priests.

In France, the debate between the Ancients and Moderns centered on progress and the comparison between the two eras, with Louis XIV associated with the sun and alchemy. Fénelon and Abbé Terrasson navigated this debate, aligning themselves with the Moderns and upholding Egypt's cultural superiority over ancient Greece. Terrasson's novel *Sethos* claimed to be written by an unknown Alexandrian of the 2nd century AD, incorporating material from ancient writers. The story follows an Egyptian prince born before the Trojan War, highlighting Egyptian superiority over Greece. The novel became a standard Masonic source, influencing plays, operas, and Masonic rituals. Dupuis, a revolutionary scholar, believed all mythologies stemmed from Egypt and interpreted myths as scientific truths. His work, challenging Christianity and Greek origins, was influential in the late 18th century. An important intellectual and political figure in Napoleonic circles believed in the cultural significance of Upper Egypt and influenced Napoleon's penetration there. Plans for the colonization of Egypt had been discussed during the 1770s. Napoleon's Masonic connections influenced his actions in Egypt, aligning with Romantic and Neo-Hellenistic ideals. Scholars like Edme-François Jomard studied Egypt for ancient knowledge, while Abbé Barthel's novel highlighted the role of Egypt and Phoenicia in shaping Greek civilization. Midford, on the other hand, viewed Greece as benefiting from connections with the East, contrary to traditional myths. This shows a transition in European perceptions of Egypt and Greece, blending Romanticism with ancient histories. Plausible historical theories against the Oriental origins of Greek civilization were defended by Midford, contrasting Samuel Musgrave's argument for the Aonian Greek culture, claiming that Greek culture was independent.

Chapter 4 discusses forces leading to the replacement of Egypt by Greece as the fount of European civilization: Christian reactions, the rise of progress, growth of racism, and Romantic Hellenism. These were not antagonistic until the late 17th century when Newton's works, like *The Chronology of Ancient Kingdoms Amended*, aimed to lower Egyptian antiquity. Newton's shift from admiration to criticism of Egypt may have been influenced by the radical Enlightenment, leading to a triangular conflict between Christianity, Egypt, and Greece in the defense of Newton's teachings.

The book discusses the historical alliance between Greeks, Pharisees, and Persians and their contributions to Christianity during the Renaissance and Reformation periods. It also examines the role of Greek language in Protestantism and its comparison to Latin, as well as the influence of Greek studies on French Hellenism. Additionally, it explores the criticism of Egyptian magic and the use of Greek scholarship by Richard Bentley to discredit ancient Egyptian wisdom. The book also mentions the collaboration between Newton and Bentley to defend Christianity against the radical Enlightenment and the portrayal of Greece as superior to Egypt in terms of religion and philosophy. The debate surrounding the antiquity and influence of Egyptian religion on Greek philosophy is also highlighted, emphasizing the progressive view of Christianity against Egyptian idolatry and the promotion of Greek philosophy by Warburton and Broke.

The book discusses the shift in European self-image towards progress and superiority, influenced by Turkish defeats in the 1680s and Newton's physics. Plato is criticized for reintroducing allegory and esotericism into philosophy, breaking from Socrates's approach. European superiority increased with economic and industrial progress. The concept of progress was articulated by Turgot in the 18th century, viewing civilizations in ascending order based on the advancement of the human spirit. Racism in Northern Europe intensified after the 16th century due to colonialism. The reputation of Egyptians declined while Greeks became more esteemed. These changes were influenced by racism and Romanticism. Protestant societies faced moral dilemmas due to beliefs in equality and liberty alongside racism. The justification for slavery was often linked to beliefs in racial superiority, as seen in the writings of Aristotle, John Locke, and David Hume. Locke, influenced by racism, supported colonization and discounted the entitlement of non-Europeans to land. European society in the 18th century viewed Africans and Native Americans as inferior. Romanticism, with its rejection of reason and focus on local identity, was another force shaping attitudes toward race and colonialism, particularly in Germany.

In conclusion, in this part of the book, racism played a significant role in European thought and society in the 18th century. Further, geographical and historical context influenced the racial genius of a people, as seen in the Romantic Movement led by Herder, who emphasized the essence of all peoples and promoted the collection of folk songs. The influence of Scottish ballads and the forgery of Ossian and the Romantic Movement led to a change in the perception of Homer, with a focus on childhood and emotion rather than rationality, and a shift from classical to Romantic Hellenism. Places like Greece, associating sentiment with a shift from Imperial Rome to classical and Homeric Greece. Romantic ideals of cold remoteness and purity were imposed on Greece, reflecting the broader shift towards Romanticism in the late 18th century.

In the 18th century, noblemen extended "Grand Tours" to Greece for a more immersive experience, different from scholars who read books. Romantics like Robert Wood emphasized experiencing original documents and remains. Britain admired Greeks, considering their development rapid and evidence of superior genius. The German Winckelmann championed Greek art and culture, emphasizing liberty, youth, and aesthetics over philosophy. His work influenced German Neo-Hellenism, breaking from Latin humanism and leading to the appreciation of Greek culture in Germany. Goethe and Humboldt further Winckelmann's ideas, leading to the belief in Greece as a symbol of vitality and advancement over Egypt. The identification of Germany as the new "Hellas" in the 18th century was driven by its cultural potential despite political disunity. The admiration for the Greeks by key figures like Wieland, Goethe, and Herder contributed to Germany's cultural focus on ancient Greece. The foundation of the Academia at Göttingen in the 18th century Germany marked the emergence of modern universities, influenced by British connections and ethnic bias. The introduction of source criticism by Meinecke in historical studies revolutionized historiography, emphasizing the importance of social and historical context in interpreting sources. This approach led to a re-evaluation of ancient sources regarding Egyptian and Phoenician influence, challenging traditional historical models. The rejection of the Ancient Model by new scholars highlighted the impact of source criticism on historical analyses in Romantic Germany. Scholars like Meinecke or Miners and Blumenbach developed theories about racial categorization, with Blumenbach establishing the term "Caucasian" to describe the ideal race. The concept of Aryans originating in the Caucasus Mountains was popularized by Blumenbach and other scholars, linking the region to the biblical story of Noah's Ark. Göttingen University during 1775 and 1800 influenced the development of intellectual frameworks in various disciplines, including classical philosophy, led by Hegel. Hegel's promotion of source criticism and Neo-Hellenism were influenced by his interactions with Winckelmann. Hegel's interest in exotic peoples and travels, along with his concerns about preserving the status quo, shaped his academic and personal relationships. Overall, Göttingen's scholarly legacy emphasized reform, ethnicity, race, and thorough scholarship.

Romantic linguistics in the late 18th century saw a rise in interest in Sanskrit and other Indian languages, leading to the perception of the Indo-European language family. This interest in India replaced the fascination with Egypt, emphasizing a romantic ancestry based on kinship rather than philosophy. The rise of racism and ethnicity as historical principles affected perceptions of ancient Egypt, leading to a crisis between Egyptian mythology and Christianity. Champollion's disciples challenged Christian Orthodoxy and dated Egyptian antiquity, leading to opposition from Hellenists and Indianists. Egyptology went into decline after his death, recovering in the late 1850s. The prevailing view that Egyptians were not truly civilized led to the emergence of counter-disciplines like diffusionism and pyramidology. The romantic view of language as a form of expression influenced historical philosophy and the formation of the Indo-European language family. The passion for India and Sanskrit led to a new interest in Oriental cultures, surpassing neoclassicism in the 19th century. The myths of history of science portray heroic men creating light out of darkness. Before the Romantic age, knowledge of Egypt, China, and India was known. Sir William Jones stated in 1786 that Sanskrit bore a strong affinity to Greek and Latin, leading to the Indo-Aryan language theory. This enthusiasm for Indian culture led to the establishment of Sanskrit chairs in academia. Friedrich Schlegel emphasized the importance of language and proposed an Aryan race theory in linguistic polygenesis. He believed in the superiority of inflected languages rooted in India. Schlegel's views on race and language influenced later scholars but were not well received by the Nazis. Indo-European and Semitic languages were considered superior, but later scholars modified this view. Schlegel saw language as a force in history but believed Indian languages were regressive. Later scholars reintroduced the idea of progress in language evolution. English and French scholars also believed in the superiority of Indo-European languages. Scholars, particularly German scholars like Wilhelm von Humboldt, showed interest in Sanskrit and Indo-European languages for philosophy and religion, contrasting with earlier perceptions of only Sanskrit, Greek, Latin, and German as suitable. Humboldt emphasized the superiority of inflected languages like Sanskrit over isolating languages, although he recognized the logical capabilities of Chinese.

The Romantic Movement in the 19th century saw a shift towards studying non-Indo-European languages, linking it to an Oriental Renaissance associated with decipherments like cuneiform and hieroglyphics. However, academic Orientalism began with limitations, focusing on Central Asia and India as sources of knowledge for Europeans, leading to a narrow view of non-European cultures. This Eurocentric perspective emphasized the superiority of European civilization and disregarded the contributions of other civilizations to history. The expansion of colonialism in Asia and Africa led to increased domination in the region. The degradation of Chinese and Egyptians due to European imperialism, racism, and exploitation led to a transformation of the Western image of China as a filthy and corrupt country. The rise of racism in the 19th century categorized the Chinese as racially inferior, contrasting with previous views of their stability. Ancient Egyptians faced a precarious racial position, with scholars debating their race and their placement between white superiority and black inferiority. The racial aspect of the Egyptian problem questioned how a black race could create a civilization like ancient Egypt, leading to various denials and justifications by historians. The complexity of racial classifications and the impact of racism on the perceptions of the Chinese and Egyptians in the early 19th century.

The book discusses the perceived racial position of the Egyptians throughout history, with some considering them black while others believed they were white or Asian. Masons believed in a separation between blacks and noble Egyptians, while Germans connected Egypt to Black Africa to denigrate it. In the 19th century, the Egyptians were increasingly seen as African and black. Goin categorized Egyptians as Hamitic and black, while Wells argued for the improvement of the black race through civilization. The book also mentions the national Renaissance of modern Egypt in the early 19th century. The failure of the Egyptian Renaissance to challenge scholars' racial stereotypes of ancient Egyptians, like the silent dog in a Sherlock Holmes story, reveals significant aspects of history. Egypt's economic success under Muhammad Ali and expansion to countries like Syria and Greece were overshadowed by European intervention, leading to a decline in the Egyptian economy and subsequent British takeover. The lack of recognition of Egypt's 19th-century empire in contemporary ancient history writings highlights the influence of racial stereotypes on historical narratives. The racism of early 19th-century philosophers led to the downplaying of Egyptian successes and the dismissal of the Ancient Model. Champollion, a key figure in deciphering Egyptian hieroglyphics, faced opposition from Hellenists and Egyptologists but eventually gained recognition. Egyptology went into decline after his death in 1831 until the late 1850s. The period between 1831 and 1960 was crucial in a shift from the Egyptian-based Ancient Model to the Indian-based Aryan Model. This transition is exemplified in George Eliot's *Middlemarch* and the attitudes of scholars like Christian Bunsen towards Egyptian culture.

Further, during the 19th century, Bunsen supported prominent Egyptologists and Assyriologists like Lepsius and Samuel Birch, earning him a place of honor in Egyptology. His work *Egypt's Place in Universal History* focuses on the connection between Egyptian, Semitic, and Indo-European races, arguing for an African origin of Egyptian civilization. Bunsen's chronology, rooted in Christian beliefs, places the beginning of world history in 20,000 BC. He also discusses the progression of civilizations from China to Europe, resembling Hegel's views on world history. Bunsen's ideas on Egyptian influence in Greece and the Middle East reflect the anti-Semitic beliefs of his time, which were later rejected by academic circles. The debate

Over Egyptian religion as monotheistic or polytheistic reflects larger conflicts between Egyptology and Christianity, as well as racial implications for the Arotic civilizations.

Egyptologists in the 1860s and '70s believed in Egyptian monotheism derived from the Hermetic and Platonic tradition. Brooks and Renoff initially supported this idea but later renounced it due to increased knowledge of ancient Egypt. Scholars like Lenormant proposed that Egyptians may have only had a proto-god or no god at all. Maspero and Brugsch expressed racist views on Egyptian civilization, denying them metaphysical abilities and sophistication comparable to Greek and Roman civilizations. German scholars also questioned Egyptian monotheism and ancient wisdom, aligning with Indo-European linguistic purity concepts. Ultimately, old views of Egyptian monotheism were rejected in favor of a more racist and Eurocentric interpretation of Egyptian civilization.

Egyptologists had a skeptical and condescending attitude towards ancient Egyptian achievements, with Armant admitting to the presence of Egyptian loanwords in Greek but denying their significance. Despite this, exceptions like James Henry Breasted and Paul Foucart challenged this view, with Breasted suggesting Greek philosophy was influenced by Egyptian thought. Gardiner and other scholars continued to downplay Egyptian achievements, likening them to children and attributing materialistic tendencies to them. However, post-Second World War scholars like Dotan began to consider the spiritual and philosophical depth of Egyptian culture, leading to a more open-minded approach in France and Germany. This shift towards recognizing Egyptian originality and spirituality has started to bridge the gap between mainstream Egyptology and alternative interpretations of ancient Egypt in popular culture.

The proper relationship between Europe and other continents, particularly Egypt, shifted in the 19th century. While there was great curiosity about Egypt in the early 19th century, Egypt had more influence on Europe from the 15th to the 18th century. The 19th-century Egyptomania was weaker compared to the passion for Greece in the same period. Masons and other groups kept Egypt central to their beliefs, but there was also interest in Egypt in other fields like music and opera. Elliot Smith's diffusionist ideas, claiming Egypt as the source of European culture, were received with interest but were later proven incorrect. Despite this, Egypt's influence and fascination persisted in various aspects of Western culture.

The possibility of indirect Egyptian influence on Mesoamerican pyramids strengthened with discoveries after 1,000 BC. Elliot Smith's book led to controversy due to his beliefs challenging racist views in anthropology. During the 1920s, Joe Mart's theories about ancient Egyptian wisdom faced criticism but survived. In the 19th century, heretical views on Egyptian mathematics and astronomy clashed with traditional Egyptology due to differences in scholarly language and a challenge to established paradigms. The struggle between the two groups continued in the 20th century with debates on the purpose and construction of the pyramids. Petrie's survey in 1880 confirmed some pyramidology claims but led to the classification of their theories as pseudoscience. Despite opposition, advancements were made in understanding the mathematical and astronomical significance of Egyptian constructions.

Livio Catullo Steni and Giorgio de Santillana believed in ancient knowledge of global measurement and astronomy but faced criticism and rejection from Orthodox scholars. Otto Neugebauer, a respected historian of science, dismissed ancient Egyptian ideas as practical rather than profound. Georges Goyon and Louis Powell opposed Orthodox Egyptologists, maintaining the pyramids' mathematical precision. Klaus Bayer explained the Great Pyramid's design using straightforward methods. Robert Lull, Malcolm Holsman, and Henry Fisher supported Bayer, arguing for Egypt's influence on early Greek mathematicians. John A. Wilson and Miriam Lichtheim defended ancient Egyptian wisdom and understanding against claims of European superiority and disdain for non-Western traditions, which is true, true to which is very true till this very day.

During the early 19th century, the Orthodox view of ancient Egyptian influence on Greek civilization was challenged by scholars like Lauth and Dron or Drotin. The rise of Altertumswissenschaft in Germany, pioneered by figures like Friedrich August Wolf and Wilhelm von Humboldt, promoted the study of antiquity in a professional and meritocratic setting. This new discipline was seen as a way to integrate and educate the populace, avoiding revolutionary upheaval. Wolf's work on Homer, inspired by Romantic ideals, emphasized the collective creation of the epics by ancient Greek poets. The political views of Romantic Hellenism and positivism were closely linked, favoring small, free states but ultimately recoiling from the violence of the French Revolution.

Wolf and Humboldt's friendship and scholarly collaboration reflected these ideals, shaping the educational and scholarly landscape of the time. Humboldt promoted the study of antiquity as a means of moral and educational formation, believing that learning about the ancient Greeks would create a better society. He implemented educational reforms in Prussia based on Bildung, which aimed to reanimate the German people after their defeat by Napoleon. The study of the Greeks was seen as a way to transcend the extremes of revolution and reaction. Humboldt recruited scholars like Wolf to establish a new educational system emphasizing active research and source criticism. The Romantic fascination with the Greeks, their language, and their transcendence of historical laws influenced the development of Altertumswissenschaft and the formation of the ruling class in Europe. Ultimately, the discipline of Classics served as a conservative tool to prevent revolution and maintain the status quo in the 19th century.

Philhellenism was part of the Romantic Movement, focusing on Greek liberty and rejecting industrialization and rationalism. Philhellenes were more radical and secular than mainstream Romantics, but Germans deeply involved in the Greek War of Independence. Byron's passion for Greece led him to join the war, symbolizing European vigor against Eastern corruption. Romantic views of Spain's Arab rule changed with racial considerations, shifting perceptions of Greece's ancient origins. Philhellenes sought a pure, pre-corruption Greece, idolizing the Dorians as the essence of Hellenic culture. This German tradition of romanticizing Greek culture persisted through the 19th and 20th centuries.

The idea of Laconians being racially pure Aryans was popular in the late 19th century, with writers linking them to Germans. Scholars like John Bagnell Bury and William R. Hardie viewed the Dorians as racially pure and superior, drawing parallels between the Dorians and Germans, as well as the English and the Irish. Transitional figures like Hegel and Marx straddled the changes in the 1820s, with Hegel expressing disdain for Africa and Oriental countries while praising Greece. Marx argued that Greece was superior but faced a paradox in terms of progress.

Adolf Heinrich was focused on parallels between African and Near Eastern cultures in Greece, clinging to the ancient model despite criticism. Barthold Niebuhr, considering the founder of modern ancient history, also adhered to the ancient model, influencing 19th-century historical understanding. Barthold Niebuhr was deeply rooted in Romanticism and conservatism. His wide scholarly background and political experiences informed his historical writings. Despite some early reformist tendencies, he ultimately aligned with reactionary views. His ideological position was a mix of conservative and liberal attitudes, influenced by British thinkers like Burke.

Niebuhr's promotion of Romanticism extended beyond history to his involvement in the German community in Rome. His historical writings were shaped by his romantic and conservative beliefs, deviating from Enlightenment principles. Niebuhr's method of studying antiquity aimed to promote Bildung and patriotism through combining rational criticism with imaginative reconstruction from text analysis, analogy, and intuition. He challenged traditional historians by introducing inference and imagination, emphasizing historical significance over moral judgments. Niebuhr's contributions included hypotheses on Roman history's origins from epic poems and the racial differences between the patricians and the plebeians. Despite criticism on various theories, Niebuhr's impact on historical research and the prioritization of studying peoples and their institutions remained significant. His focus on racial purity and physical racism reflected the Romantic era's beliefs in Volk and Gemeinschaft. Despite advocating for autochthonous cultures in Europe, he supported European conquest to promote science, literature, and human rights. His defense of imperialism against barbaric powers aligns with his beliefs in the racial superiority of Europeans.

Niebuhr believed that Greek writing developed independently of Eastern art but acknowledged some early influences. He dated Egyptian history back to 2200 BC. Niebuhr expressed cultural arrogance by dismissing early Egyptian dynasties as invented, criticized the Phoenicians, and made racist distinctions between Greeks and Egyptians. He shared anti-Semitism and romantic sentiments.

Karl Otfried Müller challenged the ancient model, asserting Greek European civilization predates Egyptian influence. He viewed Greeks as influenced by European culture and condemned Greek fascination with Egyptian superiority. Müller's work focused on cultural connections between Greek and non-European religious beliefs, opposing the Masons, Schlegel, and Romantic Orientalists. Müller argued against the ancient model, claiming that Greek myths and civilization were not derived from the Near East. He used the argument from silence and etymology to support his views, challenging legends surrounding figures like Cecrops and Danaos. He also employed dissection and analysis to show that Greek myths were rooted in Greece, not borrowed from the East. Müller's views on Greek mythology as distinct from Eastern myth influenced scholars in the 20th century, leading to the rejection of claims of Near Eastern influence on Greek civilization. Müller had struggled with etymology in trying to explain Greek myth, leading to subordination to mythology. However, he was praised in his time and considered a pioneer of ancient history. Although initially admired, modern scholars have criticized his work as focusing more on Doric excellence rather than history. Müller's work was based on traditional material and did not consider new scholarly developments of his time, leading to the fall of the ancient model due to external reasons.

The transmission of Müller's work to England led to the rise of the Aryan model, aligning with the prevailing racism and Indo-European conquest ideas. Germanic influence in educational reform in England in the 19th century was influenced by German philosophy and education, leading to a compromise between tradition and modernity. In the 19th century, the importance of Latin and Greek in education increased in England, following the German system. Thomas Arnold and scholars like Thirlwall at Cambridge promoted the study of Classics. Thirlwall's romantic and counter-revolutionary ideals influenced the intellectual elite. He later became Bishop of St. Davids, advocating for liberalism and civil rights. The influence of German scholarship in England continued through figures like Arnold and Thirlwall, shaping the intellectual landscape of the time.

Macaulay believed that the Greeks were exceptional and should not be analyzed in the same way as other people. George Grote criticized Mitford for being pro-English and failing to recognize Greece's unique contributions to democracy. Thirlwall challenged the ancient model, arguing that Greek colonization myths were questionable. Both Thirlwall and Grote believed that ancient Greece should be studied differently due to its special nature. Grote's history of Greece surpassed Thirlwall's, despite their similarities and differences in approach. Grote emphasized empirical study over conjecture in ancient history, aligning with the scientific spirit of his time. Grote and Thirlwall disagreed on the treatment of legends as historical fact and the distinction between legendary and historical Greece. Both scholars recognized the importance of examining Greece's influence on society rather than purity of bloodlines. Momigliano argues that Grote's neutral views on Greek mythology have not been invalidated by archaeological discoveries, as the skepticism was influential in expelling heretics from the Aryan model.

The rise of the Aryan model in the 19th century, based on linguistic connections between Greek and Sanskrit, transformed the understanding of Greek origins. The broad Aryan model, which included elements of both the ancient and Aryan models, suggested multiple conquests of early Greeks. The lack of ancient attestation for the Aryan model, particularly concerning tribal movements and invasions post-Trojan War, posed challenges for scholars. Despite the absence of ancient authority, the rise of philology as a scientific discipline allowed for the acceptance of new historical interpretations. Mommsen criticized historical fables disguised as history. The Aryan model for Greece emerged in the 1840s and '50s, likely developed by the Curtius brothers. George linked Greece to Indo-Europeans linguistically, while Ernst connected it historically. George focused on Indo-European linguistics, while Ernst wrote a historical description of Greece. Ernst considered Pelasgians as inferior Aryans with Hellenes conquering them. Curtius's romantic view of Greece extended to Aryans, portraying them as Northern conquerors. The brothers emphasized the distinction between Pelasgians and Hellenes and the dualism in Greek history. Curtius's admiration for the Greek language led him to believe it was perfected in the northern mountains before reaching Greece. He dismissed claims of Egyptian and Phoenician influence on Greek civilization. Curtius's views on Phoenician settlement were shaped by his belief in the pure and artistic nature of the Greek language.

The discovery of the Minoan civilization in Crete by Evans in 1900 prevented the island from being taken over by the Phoenicians. The rise of racial anti-Semitism led to a rejection of the idea of Phoenician influence on early Greece. French hostility towards the Phoenicians, as seen in Flaubert's novel *Salammbô*, made it difficult for even British and Jewish scholars to support them. The shift from religious to racial anti-Semitism in the 19th century had different impacts in Germany, France, and England. The concept of the Caucasian race evolved over time, with some writers considering Arabs and Jews as part of it. However, attitudes changed, with some scholars promoting racist ideologies and advocating for the extermination of certain races. Modern anti-Semitic scholars like Knox and Goin believed that Jews were racially inferior and incapable of intellectual or creative pursuits. French scholars like Renan and Berthelot also perpetuated racial stereotypes about Semites, while Genu steria racial purity and superiority influenced European racism. The idea of a racial struggle between Aryans and Semites was prevalent, with the Semites being seen as physiologically inferior. The linguistic connection between Jews and Phoenicians also contributed to the negative perception of Semites in academic circles. Genu and Renan believed that Semitic peoples were inferior due to linguistic and geographical reasons. Renan thought Semites lacked complexity, but their simplicity led to the creation of religion.

Matthew Arnold's views on race differed from his father's, favoring Indo-Europeans and recognizing English similarities to Semites. Arnold believed turning towards Greek culture would benefit England. Victorian Arnold's were influenced by Arnold's ideas, linking Indo-Aryan progress to Hellenism and seeing a perpetual struggle with Semitic culture. Others like Lagarde sought to create a Germanic Christianity by removing Semitic influences. Hardy's views align with Arnold and Renan's positive perception of Phoenicians, emphasizing their trade and influence in England, contrasting with French and German views. Goin's complex portrayal of Phoenicians as Hellenic reflects a blend of biblical and linguistic factors, redefining Semitic languages to separate Phoenicians from Hebrews. Genu believed Phoenicians were black and corrupt, responsible for Jews' corruption. He never visited England despite studying there. He compared Anglo-Saxons and Canaanites, disliking both and detesting Hamites and impure Semites. He discussed Phoenicians' corruption, luxury, and religious rites, contrasting them with white races. Flaubert's novel *Salammbô*, based on Michelet's work, depicted decadence in Carthage. Flaubert visited Carthage, used latest French Orientalist scholarship and biblical information for his novel, but misrepresented Carthage and Europeans' capabilities. Flaubert's success with *Salammbô* portrayed horrific aspects of Carthaginian culture, especially child sacrifice to the god Moloch. The success of the novel led to renewed biblical and religious hatred towards Carthage and Phoenicians. Flaubert's depiction influenced academic views on Carthage and Phoenicia.

The book discusses various historians' opinions on Phoenician influence in Greece, including Genu's complex racial classifications. Genu believed that ancient Greece had been influenced and corrupted by Semitic peoples, particularly Phoenicians, contributing to a decline in Greek purity. Schliemann's discoveries at Mycenae challenged beliefs about Phoenician influence in Greece. Gladstone acknowledged potential Phoenician impact on Greek culture, while some scholars like Duncker believed in Phoenician settlements in Greece. Others like Holm saw Greek exceptionalism.

The period from 1885 to 1945 saw a denial of Phoenician influence due to anti-Semitism. Semitic elements in Greek culture were attributed to Assyrians and Babylonians, with an emphasis on Mesopotamian civilization as the source of Western Semitic culture. Anatolia was also considered as a potential source of Oriental influence on Greece. The Aryan model was consolidated during this time, rejecting Egyptian and Phoenician influences on Greece. The 1890s saw scholars like Roch and Bello challenging traditional beliefs about Phoenician colonization. The influence of Jews and international events led to peaks of anti-Semitism in the 1880s and '90s.

Between the 1880s and 1890s and the 1920s and 1930s, scholarship on ancient Greece experienced a shift with a rejection of Semitic influences in Aegean history in favor of a focus on indigenous Greek origins. This move led to a dismissal of Phoenician influences, such as the alphabet, and a reclassification of Mycenaean remains as European rather than Oriental. Figures like Kumanieki championed the idea of a Greek Renaissance, emphasizing the continuity of Greek civilization through different periods. The rise of racial anti-Semitism in Europe also influenced intellectual thought during this time, with scholars like Salomon Reinach challenging conventional beliefs about the influence of Oriental cultures on European development. Reinach's views reflected a broader reaction against the "Mirage Oriental" and an assertion of Europe's intellectual independence. Roch challenged Indian-Greek mythology links. Saloman redefined Proto-Indo-European as European. Reinach asserted an indigenous basis of European prehistoric cultures. Reinach opposed Aryan racism and Semitic influences up to the metallic age. Bello introduced statistical methods in history, denied Phoenician culture in Greece, and reinterpreted Hecataeus's reference to Phoenicians. Bello doubted Phoenician navigation abilities, but archaeological evidence suggests otherwise. The extreme Aryan view was evident in Bello's denial of Semitic loans in the Greek language and culture. The Iliad rejected Phoenician involvement in Greek civilization before the 8th century. Guy Bonit discusses extreme Aryanism and Eurocentric beliefs, while Victor Bérard challenges this by suggesting Semitic influences in Greek culture. Bérard's discoveries in Arcadia led him to question the Eurocentric bias in interpreting ancient history, arguing against prejudices that reject Semitic influence in Greek civilization.

Explaining scholarly developments in externalist terms can be challenging. The book suggests looking at three tiers of scholarship: one, individual thoughts; two, teaching and publishing abilities; and three, general developments. Scholars like Bérard faced challenges in publishing unsound ideas due to academic orthodoxy. Bérard's controversial theories on Greek and Phoenician connections were discredited by Orthodox Academia but widely appreciated by the public. European society's racism and anti-Semitism hindered changes in historical models. The rise of Eytan's popularity in Egyptology showed changing perceptions of Egyptians as exotic rather than inferior. The book highlights the difficulty of challenging academic orthodoxy and societal beliefs in scholarly pursuits.

Scholars suggest Jews learned religion from Egypt, possibly influencing Christianity through Akhenaten's monotheism. Arthur Evans's Minoan discoveries led to the belief that Minoans were not Semites. Anti-Semitism rose in the 1920s, affecting Jewish academics and Classics, reflecting a broader prejudice in society. Aryan racism increased in academic circles, as seen in Gordon Childe's work and the *Cambridge Ancient History*, with crude views on different races like Mongols and Semites. Scholars like Cook and Frankfort continued this thinking, with a focus on pre-Hellenic to preserve Greek civilization. Attempts to link pre-Hellenic languages to Anatolian failed, highlighting the difficulties in understanding these ancient peoples. Despite flawed studies, the belief in the influence of Egypt or Phoenicia on Greek civilization remained continuous.

The identification of the Minoans with the Phoenicians was challenged in the 19th century, suggesting that Greek myths referring to the Phoenicians were actually talking about Minoans. The introduction of the Phoenician alphabet to Greece was a subject of debate, with scholars like Carpenter suggesting a late 8th-century date for its arrival there. There were arguments about the origins and significance of the alphabet, including claims that vowels were a Greek creation. Carpenter also proposed Crete, Rhodes, and Cyprus as possible places of alphabet adoption. The discussion on the alphabet's transmission date reflected a desire for proof and certainty in ancient history and archaeology, with some scholars preferring a later date to avoid implications of substantial Phoenician settlement in Greece. Carpenter's choice of a late date was influenced by the Assyrians' impact on the Phoenician coast in the mid-8th century, suggesting an Assyrian direction for Phoenician voyages to Greece. Rhys Carpenter argued that the rapid spread of the alphabet in Greece, Italy, and Anatolia made a late dating plausible, suggesting a miraculous growth due to the Greek climate. While some scholars challenged Carpenter's views or his views, most Classics people who study Classics embraced them enthusiastically, confirming the belief in a long, dark age of illiteracy in Greece. Carpenter's theories also aligned with the extreme Aryan model, leading to the dismissal of Egyptian and Phoenician influence on Greek culture.

However, post-World War II saw a shift towards reestablishing the broad Aryan model, acknowledging the Phoenician contribution and challenging the suppression of their achievements. The revival of the Egyptian colonization tradition in academia remains limited, mostly championed by small groups outside the mainstream scholarly community. The shift in perspective underscores the ongoing reassessment of ancient history and historiography. Objections to the ancient model are no longer publicly stated but still believed in privately. The Aryan model is supported by tradition and inertia, weakened by new discoveries.

The post-war era saw a shift in attitudes towards racism and anti-Semitism in academia, with Jewish scholars gaining acceptance. Racial discrimination against Africans and Asians remained strong despite legal and political reforms, and still true to this day. The writing of history was influenced by events in the Third World, shaping perceptions of different cultures. Developments in Classics post-1945 saw a shift towards linguistic divisions over racial boundaries, with important discoveries changing perspectives within the field. Decipherment of Linear B by outsiders challenged traditional views, highlighting the limitations of established classicists and breakthrough discoveries. Most comparative linguists found adventurous work acceptable, but Hellenists criticized it. Ventris's personal charm, collaboration with Chadwick, and new tablet evidence led to rapid acceptance. However, the decipherment supported the extreme Aryan model, extending Greek history back to the 13th century BC.

The model of autochthonous origin challenges the Aryan model by proposing that Greek originated in Anatolia and the Balkans. East Mediterranean contacts were debated, with some scholars denying extensive contact with Phoenicians. New archaeological evidence challenged theories of Greek dominance in context with the Levant. Some scholars suggested Phoenician influence on Greek civilization, while others explored the Cadmean and Danaos legends. Stubbing and Vermeule proposed Egyptian and Phoenician influence on Mycenaean civilization, challenging prevailing theories. The decline of Mycenaean civilizations due to broken contacts with Crete and the East is discussed by Mr. Bernal with different views on the influence of indigenous development versus foreign invasion. The impact of the Hyksos on Egypt and Greece is debated. New archaeological evidence points to Levantine influence in the Aegean during the Late Bronze Age. The role of Near Eastern artifacts and mythology in shaping Greek culture is explored. The strict prohibition on Afro-Asiatic influences on the Greek languages is noted, with some scholars challenging this notion by uncovering Canaanite loans in Greek. The importance of Ugarit in understanding cultural exchanges between Greece and the Near East is highlighted by Mr. Bernal. The discovery of the Ugaritic civilization weakened the extreme Aryan model, as it revealed a new Semitic language similar to Canaanite.

Scholars like Cyrus Gordon link Semitic and Greek cultures through Ugarit and Crete, challenging the extreme Aryan model. Gordon's work on Linear A and biblical parallels faced controversy but received support from South African scholars due to ideological reasons. However, mainstream Academia rejected his ideas, leading to his marginalization despite his pioneering work in Semitics. Cyrus Gordon's hypothesis on the Semitic influence on Mycenaean script, language, and society is significant despite being overlooked. Gordon's students, influenced by his teachings, have become prominent in American Semitic studies, challenging the dominance of Classics. Michael Astour, influenced by van Dijk and Gordon, published *Hellenosemitica* in 1967, presenting parallels between Greek, Ugaritic, and biblical myths. Astour's work was controversial as it challenged academic hierarchy and proposed Semitic influence on Greek mythology. Although met with hostility, *Hellenosemitica* sold well, impacting the historiography of the ancient Mediterranean. As Astour's successor, J.C. Bilig expanded on Astour's ideas, considering Semitic presence in Hellenistic Greece and exploring Danaos's Egyptian origin. Astour and Bilig's work has influenced ancient historians and challenged traditional views on the influence of ancient Semitic culture on Greek civilization.

Scholars who challenge academic orthodoxy often struggle to find publishers willing to release their work, as publishers are discouraged from promoting heretical views. Dr. Ruth Edwards attempted to compromise between traditional and alternative theories regarding ancient legends and history, incorporating both in her book about Phoenician civilization and colonization. Her cautious approach, influenced by scholars like Cyrus Gordon and Astour, suggests that the extreme Aryan model may be losing credibility. In addition, recent research has shown evidence of Phoenician influence in the early Iron Age Aegean, contradicting previous theories about the region's trade networks. The influence of West Semitic culture on Mycenaean Greece is evident in the transmission of the alphabet. Joseph Naveh argued that early Greek inscriptions resembled Canaanite rather than Phoenician forms, with some letters closely resembling Canaanite shapes. Naveh's work challenged traditional views but received little response from scholars, while some Semiticists supported the transmission. Recent discoveries in Israel supporting a higher date of transmission in the 10th century BC or even earlier, the existence of South Semitic scripts in the 14th century BC, further supports the theory of an early transmission of the alphabet. Further, Professor Röllig and Mansel suggest that the Canaanite alphabet came from an earlier South Semitic one. Propretorius argued that Thamudic and Safaitic letters influenced the Greek alphabet. The extreme Aryan model view was challenged in the 1980s. Moren's work on Egypt and Greece influenced, but within limits.

The Black American scholars dispute the Aryan model. George GM James' *Stolen Legacy* highlights Greek learning from Egypt. Cheikh Anta Diop linked Egypt and Africa in his work. In an essay by Jacob Carruthers, Black scholars are divided into three schools regarding the racial nature of ancient Egyptians: the first group, the "old scrappers," lacked formal training but sought out the truth about Black history; the second group, influenced by European historiography, believed that Blacks contributed to an ancient Egyptian civilization; the third group, in extension of the old scrappers, had multi-disciplinary skills and focused on the African past. The book discusses the struggle between Carruthers' second and third groups, with a focus on the revised ancient model, which sees Egypt as essentially African. The academic establishment's rejection of the extreme Aryan model and the changing views on racism and anti-Semitism suggest that the revised ancient model may gain wider acceptance.

This book, as we head into the conclusion of Volume One, shows a focus on the change in models regarding the origins of Greek civilization, exploring the historical perception of Greeks related to Egyptian influence and philosophy. The rise of Eurocentrism and racism shifted the perception of Egyptians as philosophers to Greeks and led to the development of Classics as a discipline. The glorification of ancient Greece and rejection of outside influences in the 19th century led to the establishment of the Aryan model, which emphasized European superiority and dismissed the idea of African and Semitic influence on Greek civilization. This shift was driven by social and intellectual forces, not internal deficiencies. However, with the rise of racism and anti-Semitism, Egypt's cultural significance declined, and the Phoenicians were disregarded. The Aryan model is now being challenged with a recognition of Canaanites and Phoenicians' role in shaping ancient Greece. Mr. Bernal argues that while the Aryan model was conceived in sin and error, its origins do not invalidate its usefulness. Its competition with the ancient model as tools for understanding ancient Greece is explored.

The origin of the clan name Eteobadidae, hereditary priests of Athena Polias in Athens, may have contamination from the Egyptian Coptic "eot," which means forefathers. Various sources discuss the origins of the Philistines and the early transmission of the alphabet. Writing's influence on the spoken languages is explored. Furthermore, discussions on Pelasgians, early Athenians, and the association of Cecrops with Egypt are mentioned by Mr. Bernal. The Egyptian etymology of Greek names such as Pelops may suggest a deeper connection. The relationship between Zeus and Poseidon and the identification of Zeus with Amon are discussed, and the trilogy structure of the *Suppliants* and the various related themes are highlighted by Mr. Bernal as well.

Xois, the Hyksos capital of Aris, was founded in the 17th century BC or earlier, according to Freret. The derivation of Xois from "necklace" or "neck" is considered a folk one. Other related topics, such as the phonetics of the Ion or Lowe's relationship in Greek and Latin traditions, and Egyptian influences on Athena and Poseidon, are discussed by various scholars such as Apollodorus, Astour, and Meyer. Additionally, the controversy surrounding Plato's visit to Egypt and his insights into ancient civilizations are explored by scholars like Freud and von Däniken. The relationship between Sais and Athens, as well as the significance of astronomy in ancient Greek philosophy, are also subjects of interest among researchers like George GM James, whom I covered recently, and H. Dessenne. Various debates, including the authenticity of historical documents and the connection between Jews and Spartans, are also highlighted in the works by M. Momigliano and Astour. Various ancient sources are cited regarding the identification of Poseidon with Seth, the spread of the cult of Isis, and the connection between Osiris and Dionysus. The teachings also discuss the influence of Hermeticism on Gnosticism and Neoplatonism, highlighting the significance of women in these theological movements. Connections between Egyptian wisdom and Greek transmission from the Dark Ages to the Enlightenment are explored through various historical and scholarly perspectives.

The book discusses various influences on Gnosticism, Hermetic studies, and the dating of Hermetic texts. It also mentions the significance of Egyptian and Semitic roots in cosmogony, as well as the possible influences of Scythians, Persians, and Hittites. The presence of Egyptian scarabs in Kamos's tomb is also explored in light of scholarly errors and ideological motivations. The book, as we get into the end in this part, ends with a mention of mysteries and initiation in the Middle and Old Kingdom of Egypt, setting the stage for further discussion.

The influence of Hermeticism on astronomy extended beyond Copernicus to Kepler and 17th-century scientists, as discussed by various authors. The connection between Moses and Mos related to Egypt's borrowing from Syria is explored by Mr. Bernal. In the 17th and 18th centuries, Egypt's significance grew with the Cambridge Platonists and the interest in hieroglyphics. The role of millennialism and cabalism in studying fragmented light is noted. The enthusiasm for Egypt in the 18th century is highlighted, with various scholars contributing to the exploration of Egypt's influence on Western thought. The Freemason link to the Knights Templar and Spinoza's influence on Neoplatonists are also discussed by Mr. Bernal, and the attempt to merge ancient Egyptian and Greco-Roman cults is also mentioned through various historical figures and texts.

Mozart wrote *Thamos, King of Egypt* at 17 before becoming a Mason, linking *The Magic Flute*'s survival to being the first major German opera. Goethe wrote a sequel. Saint-Louis' expedition to Egypt influenced its theme. Various sources explore Egypt's influence on literature and culture, as well as the link between Protestantism and Greek studies. Historiography, ancient alphabets, and Plato's influence in 18th-century thought are also discussed, along with attitudes towards race and nationalism. French cultural conquest, Homer's role, and the origin of Greek words are examined, concluding with the term "Romantic Hellenism."

Linguists, including Simon Suri, St. Clair, and Winckelmann, there is a vivid description of Edmund Wilson on Michelet's historical views. Different scholars present opposing viewpoints on topics such as Newton's chronology and Winckelmann's ideas on hieroglyphics. The Romantic Linguistics movement, particularly Herder, Schlegel, and Humboldt, emphasized the importance of India over Egypt, leading to the rise of Indo-Aryan studies. This specific part in the end also highlights the continued influence of Sir William Jones on the perception of Egypt as a source of knowledge. Schlegel, Humboldt, and other scholars have compared languages and civilizations with influences from various cultures. Genu, Kautz, and other Hellenistic racist views on non-European civilizations. The racism and stereotypes prevalent in society influenced historical interpretations and views on different cultures. The impact of Africa and Asia on ancient Europe is highlighted with examples of cultural exchanges between civilizations. Japan's exceptional status in relation to colonialism and Western perceptions is discussed. Historical figures like Champollion and Humboldt played a significant role in deciphering languages and understanding ancient civilizations. The influence of racial biases on historical interpretations and views of non-European cultures is a recurring theme. Non-European civilizations were maintained by the son of Maspero, Henry, a distinguished sinologist who was killed in the Second World War. Various scholars have discussed the influence of Egyptian and Greek words, as well as the sophistication of Egyptian literature. The impact of Egypt on various fields, including literature, masonry, and funeral customs, has been analyzed by different scholars. Additionally, there is a debate over the influence of African and East Asian cultures on America, as well as the role of Europe in connecting different continents. Humboldt's concept of Bildung for the masses and its reception in contemporary society has also been studied by scholars. Antiquity is not considered in the tradition of Altertumswissenschaft Classics in Northern Europe. There is a conservative focus on the Orient and India. Various authors like Hyatt, St. Clair, Butler, Moss, Stern, and others have contributed to discussions on topics like Aryan Christianity and Greek art. The impact of the Marbles on British appreciation of Greece's discovery. Hegel's views on Race and History are referenced, along with various other authors like Marx, Flaubert, and Shelley. References to scholars like Rosseau, Bunsen, and Wheats and their views on History are mentioned, as well as discussions on Etruscans and mythological themes. The book also includes discussions on Niebuhr's historical methods and the influences of Romanticism on historical interpretations. Hegel, Marx, and other authors' views on Race and History are also touched upon by Mr. Bernal.

Overall, this book discusses various scholarly views on antiquity and history, including different interpretations of Greek myths and historical events. And as you see, as I've covered this book, as you see, it is not it is a tough read, and there is a lot to learn here, but Mr. Bernal gives you a wealth of knowledge, and I hope I have done right by him. I dedicate this presentation to Martin Bernal, his memory, to Sheikh Wahid Al-Awal, who encouraged me to read this book. And I encourage all of you in today's society and in the age of the internet and social media, you've got to realize that everything that we've been taught in schools and in these different groups and societies, it's all lies favoring Western white supremacy. Challenge everything and learn everything through a non-biased perspective, as this book itself, as you see, is written by a white man challenging what we're seeing even till to this day, where even in Freemasonry, I encountered they only want to give credit to the Greeks and Romans, but that system of initiation and initiatic orders originated from the Near East in Asia, as I've covered in countless presentations, but they always want to dismiss them and discount them due to that feeling of racial superiority. So think about it, think about everything that's been discussed here. So thank you all, and I wish you a great June 2024.