Transcription
Hey guys, in this video, Tim is gonna take you through the whole of Edexcel GCSE Citizenship Paper One. Don't forget, to go with this there is the free revision guides, there is the online course, and there is the workbook which you can download from my website.
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[Tim] Our sense of identity is our sense of who we are and how we see ourselves. And it's made up of many different factors. Such as our religion, our culture, which may well stem from our religion. Our ethnic or national origin. Our accent and dialect. Our sexuality, gender and lifestyle choices. Our socio-economic status, how rich or poor we are. Our cuisine and dietary choice, things like vegan, pescatarian, vegetarian. Our subculture, media and musical preferences, such as goth, emo, punk, rock, rave. Our political views, or our profession.
When understanding the composition of the United Kingdom, there are several key terms that we need to understand. The first of these is the British Isles, which is a geographical description of the islands of Great Britain, Ireland, the Isle of Man, the Isle of Wight, and several smaller islands such as the Scilly Isles. Great Britain describes the single large land mass of England, Wales, and Scotland. And the United Kingdom describes our nation state composed of the four constituent nations of Northern Ireland, Scotland, England, and Wales.
There are four constituent nations of the United Kingdom. England, with a population of roughly 56 million, has its capital in London. Wales, with a population of roughly 3 million, has its capital in Cardiff. Scotland, with a population of roughly five and a half million, has its capital at Edinburgh. And Northern Ireland, with a population of roughly 2 million, has its capital in Belfast. It's important to understand that for many people in Northern Ireland, Scotland, and Wales, their national identity of being Welsh, Northern Irish, or Scottish, is more important to their sense of overall identity than being British.
Immigration is the act of moving to and settling in another country. Whereas emigration is the act of leaving a country with the intention of settling elsewhere. There are many factors which cause migration. Such as standards of living, with high standards of living leading to people wanting to immigrate to a nation. Low standards of living generally cause people to want to leave a nation. Peace and political stability also have an impact, as do human rights and freedoms. Economic factors, such as available work and jobs, benefits and welfare, can also cause immigration and emigration.
There have been several waves of migration into the UK which can be generally summarized like this. During the 1950s and '60s there was a wave of migration from the West Indies and Caribbean. These were known as the Windrush Generation, and generally migrated for work and prosperity. During the 1970s and '80s there was a wave of migration from India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh. Generally migrating for work, often in the textile industry, and settling in places like Bradford, Birmingham, and London. During the 1990s and 2000s, following the end of the Cold War, there was a wave of migration from Poland and other parts of Eastern Europe, generally migrating on a temporary basis for work and increased wages.
There are many ways in which the nature of the UK population is changing. There are many different religions in the UK, Christianity, Islam, Judaism. There are many non-religious people in the UK, people who identify as atheist or humanist. There are many different sexualities in the UK, such as heterosexual, homosexual, bisexual, asexual. And there are also different gender identities in the UK, people who identify as being transgender or gender-fluid. The UK population is also increasingly urban and decreasingly rural. The UK population is slowly increasingly aging, with the average age increasing slowly. But the general trend of population change in the UK is to increase diversity.
There are several key principles and values which underpin life in the UK. They are democracy, the tolerance of others, the diversity of the population, the rule of law, secularism, which is that there is no official state religion, and our constitutional monarchy.
Citizens in the UK enjoy human rights and political rights. Human rights include things like the right to life. The right to freedom of religion. The right to freedom of association. And the right to freedom from torture. Political rights include things like the right to vote. The right for that vote to be secret. The right to free speech within some reasonable limits. And the right to freedom of conscience, to think what you like. Moral rights include things like the right to an education. The right to freedom of thought and expression. And the right to be credited for work which is yours. Legal rights include things like the right to a fair trial. The idea that everybody is equal before the law. The idea that you are innocent until proven to be guilty. And the right to representation, to be represented in the legal system.
There are several international treaties which deal with human rights. The UN Universal Declaration on Human Rights in 1948 set out basic and universal fundamental human rights. This was followed by The European Convention on Human Rights in 1953 which was set out by the Council of Europe, which is distinct from the EU, and established basic human rights in Europe and set up the European Court of Human Rights, the ECHR. The UN Convention on the Rights of a Child in 1989 set out basic and universal fundamental human rights which are specific to children. Such as the right to a basic education, and freedom from slavery.
Local government has several roles. They are elected in local elections, and deal with smaller issues in a specific local area. Such as waste collection, roads, parking, social housing. Local government is funded both from central government grants and also through council tax.
Devolved governments also have several roles. They rule over a constituent nation of the United Kingdom. Examples such as the Scottish Parliament, the Northern Ireland Assembly, and the Welsh Assembly. They are elected by individuals in those nations, and they have powers over most matters in that area. Education, healthcare, crime and punishment. But some issues are reserved for the Westminster government, mostly foreign affairs and defense.
So who can stand for election in the UK? Well, they must be over 18 years of age. A British, Irish or Commonwealth citizen. They must either be nominated by a party or be an independent candidate. They must not be in a disqualifying profession, such as a judge, police officer, or bishop, where they may have a conflict of interest between their profession and their responsibilities as an elected individual. And they may not be otherwise disqualified, such as by bankruptcy or criminal record.
So are candidates to be an MP selected? Only one candidate per party can stand in each constituency. Larger parties, generally, carry out interviews to select a candidate as there may be competition in each constituency. Existing MPs, traditionally, get to stand for their party by default. The candidate receiving most votes in each constituency becomes that constituency's member of parliament. But those receiving under 5% of the vote lose their £500 deposit paid to the Electoral Commission.
So who can vote in elections? You must be 18 to vote. A British, Irish, or Commonwealth citizen. You must be registered to vote, a process which takes about three minutes. You must be resident at a UK address, or be living abroad with British citizenship. And you cannot have been legally excluded from voting. For example, by committing a serious criminal offense or electoral fraud.
A key question in this unit is should we reduce the voting age to 16? There are arguments for and against. Arguments for include that young people are affected by elections, they pay some taxes, and it would encourage young people to be more interested and involved in politics and current affairs. Arguments against include the following. There are many things which cannot be done at 16. Young people have less life experience and do not always have the maturity to make an informed decision when voting.
Voter turnout is the number of people who do vote in a constituency, compared to all of those who can. To take an example, in the Skipton and Ripon constituency at the 2019 General Election, 58,724 people of a possible 78,718 voted. This is a turnout of 74.6%, which is quite high. Many factors affect turnout. Such as the weather, turnout tends to be lower if the day is terrible. The date of the election, turnout is generally slightly lower in winter. Whether there are big issues on the day such as Brexit. Voter apathy and levels of disengagement with politics. The average age of the electorate in a constituency, older people tend to be more likely to vote. And how close the election is, in a close election where it could go either way, turnout tends to be higher.
Taxes are raised and spent in several ways. Taxes are raised through National Insurance, Income Tax, VAT, Corporation Tax. Collectively, these are known as general taxation. Fines and penalties, such as speeding tickets and court fines raise revenue for the government. And sales, such as passport applications and driving license applications. They're spent in many ways. The largest part of government spending is social security and welfare which takes roughly a third. Followed by health, education, defense, interest payments, public order and safety, and then others such as the environment and transport, which collectively get to 24%.
There are two traditional views on taxation and spending. The traditional right-wing view is that taxes and spending should both be low. People should keep more of their wages, but public services should be more limited and people should be more self-reliant. The traditional left-wing view is that taxes and spending should both be higher. People should contribute more but public services should be better funded and more should be provided by the government.
In Britain, we use the first past the post electoral system. Where the United Kingdom is divided into 650 constituencies, each of these has roughly 80,000 people. Each of these elects a single MP. Some of these are very small such as inner-city constituencies. But some cover huge areas where population density is low, such as the Highlands of Scotland. There are things to consider when evaluating this system. It does tend to result in strong and stable governments. It's simple and relatively easy to understand. And each member of parliament is linked to their constituents. But there are disadvantages. Smaller parties are greatly disadvantaged. Elections can be won by less than 50% of the vote. Millions of votes may be irrelevant. If you are a Labour voter in a safe Conservative constituency, your vote counts for little. And elections are decided by a small number of swing constituencies known as marginals.
There are several alternatives to first past the post. In proportional representation, the percentage of the votes equals your percentage of the seats. In the alternative vote system, each person chooses a primary and secondary choice. The votes are then distributed accordingly. In the list system, candidates are ranked, and votes are then distributed on the basis of these ranks.
There are three parts of government. The executive, the prime minister and the cabinet, which takes action, sets priorities, and sets direction. The legislature, which is parliament, which votes on, amends, and scrutinizes legislation. And the judiciary, the courts, which interprets law, passes judgments, and sets precedent.
Parliament is composed of two houses, making it bicameral. The lower house is the elected House of Commons. And the upper house is the appointed House of Lords. The House of Commons debates, constructs, and votes on legislation. The House of Lords reviews and amends this legislation as necessary.
The Conservative Party is a party of the right wing. Its traditional color is blue, and it's been in government through most of the latter half of the 20th century. Traditionally, it's been the party of the more well off, business, the self-employed, and agriculture. The Liberal Democrats is usually regarded as a party of the center. Its traditional color is orange. It was in coalition government from 2010 to 2015. And has traditionally been the party of students, teachers, academics, and the higher educated. The Labour Party is traditionally a party of the left wing, using the color red. In government through parts of the latter half of the 20th century. And has traditionally been thought of as the party of workers, the working class, trade unions, and the lower paid.
There are numerous other smaller parties. Such as the Green Party, focused on the environment and tolerance. UKIP and the Brexit Party, both focused on the exit of the United Kingdom from the European Union. The SNP, or Scottish National party, focused on Scottish interests and independence. And Plaid Cymru, focused on Welsh interests.
There are several key people within the House of Commons. The speaker, and several deputy speakers, who manage debates and votes and ensure the rules are followed. The black rod, responsible for security within parliament. Whips, who are tasked with ensuring members of parliament vote as their party wishes them to. And the front benches, members of whom speak for their party on specific issues.
Governments are usually formed by whoever can command a majority in parliament. Normally, this is the leader of the largest party. If they have more MPs than all of the other parties combined, this is an overall majority. If not, they can form a minority or coalition government.
In considering how other countries govern themselves, we need to look at both democratic and non-democratic states. Examples of democratic states include representative democracies such as India, Australia, or Iceland. Direct democracies such as Switzerland. Presidential democracies such as the United States or France. And federal democracies such as Germany or Brazil. Non-democratic states includes theocracies, religious government, such as Iran or Yeman. Single-party communist states such as China or Cuba. Absolute monarchies such as Saudi Arabia or Brunei. And traditional dictatorships such as current Russia or Turkmenistan.
So let's look at the concept of democracy. Demos means people, so democracy is government by the people. In the UK, we have a representative democracy. In some other countries, they have a more direct democracy, such as Switzerland, where many affairs are dealt with using referendums. In some other countries, they also have a presidential democracy, such as the United States.
There are several core principles that underpin democracy. These are human, individual and civil rights. Responsibilities, the rule of law, and equality. Human, individual and civil rights include things like the right to vote, the right to free speech, and the right to religious freedom. Responsibilities involve the responsibility to follow the laws. The rule of law is the idea that the law comes above all else. And equality is the idea that each individual is inherently equal.
Governments and cabinets have several powers. They make policy decisions and set the general direction of government. They write, propose, and attempt to pass legislation through parliament. They handle relations between the United Kingdom and other countries. And they represent the United Kingdom on the world stage. They also run individual government departments. And handle events and crises as they crop up.
The prime minister also has several additional powers. They appoint cabinet and government ministers, about 90 in total. They set policy and legislation direction for the government. They set overall direction and policy for the government. They set the tone of what the government is doing. They negotiate and confer with other leaders. They lead their particular political party. They respond, as the whole government does, to crises and events as they occur. And they can grant honors and pardons.
Parliament also has several roles. MPs vote on the passing of legislation. They also amend and update legislation, and also look at it more thoroughly in select committees. Individual MPs also represent their constituencies. And they generally hold the government to account.
The civil service is much overlooked but also has several roles. They carry out routine administration and day-to-day matters, such as the processing of passport applications. They enact the decisions and policies made by ministers. And they advise ministers based on their long experience.
The monarch also has several roles. Being a figurehead for the country. Meeting weekly with the prime minister. And acting as an experienced advisor who has seen a great deal of events in the 20th century.
The judiciary, by which we mean lawyers, solicitors and judges, also have several roles. They interpret the laws passed by parliament. They decide on liability in civil cases and sentencing in criminal cases. They interpret complex legal issues, especially in the Supreme Court. And judges set precedent by their decisions. Later judges will look at the decisions of earlier judges when weighing up a case.
When looking at the British Constitution, it's important to remember that the UK has an uncodified, or unwritten, constitution. Other countries, such as the United States, have a written constitution. There are several sources for our constitution. The first is the relationships between different institutions. How parliament, the cabinet, the prime minster, and the judiciary interact with each other. Existing law, also known as precedent. Legislation passed by parliament. And tradition and history, known as common law.
There are several fundamental principles of the law in the United Kingdom. There is the presumption of innocence. That everyone is innocent until they are proven, beyond reasonable doubt, to be guilty. There is the principal of equality before the law. That the law treats everybody the same, regardless of their status. There is the right to representation. That everybody has the right to be represented in the legal system. There is the right to due process. Everyone has the right for a known process to be followed. And everyone has the right to a fair trial.
The law also has several purposes. To rectify injustice, making sure that unfairness can be rectified. To hold those in power to account, making sure that everybody is held to the same standard. To regulate behavior, and ensure those that harm others are punished. To create a known, clear set of rules for citizens to abide by. And to create a deterrent to prevent, if possible, injustice from happening.
The law often has to balance rights. Making sure the rights of one group are balanced with the rights of another. Examples of this include the right of an employer to make money versus the right of an employee to fair treatment in their employment. The right of a criminal to an opportunity to be rehabilitated versus the right of the public to a degree of safety. The right of free speech of individuals versus the responsibility not to offend or cause distress. The right of free speech versus the responsibility to uphold national security. And the right of a government to act versus the right of citizens to hold that government to account.
The police in the UK have a range of roles and powers. They investigate crimes reported to them. Generally, they ensure the safety of the public. They arrest and apprehend individuals suspected of committing a crime. They collect evidence and pass that to the Crown Prosecution Service, the government body responsible for prosecuting and trying to ensure the conviction of suspected criminals. They enforce laws and regulations. And they advise the general public on how to prevent crime.
Legal representatives also have several roles within the legal system. They provide advice and guidance to clients. They argue for guilt or innocence during criminal trials. They argue for or against liability in civil trials. They assert the rights of those they represent. And advocate in favor of those they represent. And they carry out routine legal work on behalf of individuals or organizations.
There is a distinct difference between civil law and criminal law. Criminal law deals with issues between the individual and the state. Examples include murder, assault, fraud, theft, issues where a crime has been committed. Criminal cases need to be proven beyond all reasonable doubt. Civil law deals with non-criminal issues between individuals and organizations. Such as custody battles, property law, employment law and divorce. Civil cases need to be proved on the balance of probabilities rather than beyond all doubt.
Courts in the UK are hierarchical. A superior court can overrule an inferior one below them. In the case of civil courts, the order goes as follows. County court, above that is the High Court of Justice, above that is the Court of Appeal, and above that is the Supreme Court. For criminal courts, the order goes Magistrate's Court, above which is the Crown Court, above which is the Court of Appeal, above which is the Supreme Court.
Now there are several differences in the Scottish legal system. In criminal cases in Scotland there are three verdicts. Not guilty, not proven, and guilty. Whereas in England there is only not guilty and guilty. There are 15 people rather than 12 on a Scottish jury. And there is no automatic right to trial by jury in Scotland. This is decided based on the strength of the evidence by the prosecution service.
In the UK, the age of criminal responsibility is 10 years old. This is the age at which you are responsible for your own actions, especially if they are criminal. The generally accepted age of adulthood is 18 years old. People between these ages are dealt with by the youth justice system and young offender's institutions. And most things in the UK require you to be 18. Obtaining a mortgage and voting, for example. But some things can be done at 16, such as getting married. Or 17, such as learning to drive.
Rights in the UK have changed gradually over time. But there are several important pieces of legislation that you need to know about. The first of these is the Magna Carta in 1215, which established several key rights in the UK. Such as the right of churches to be free from government, and the right of citizens to own and inherit property, and that the monarch is subject to the law. The Human Rights Act in 1998 placed fundamental human rights into British law, such as the right to life, basic religious freedom, and freedom of speech. The Equality Act in 2010 established the legal basis for making discrimination on the basis of gender, sexuality, religion or race a crime.
There are four main sources of law in the UK. Legislation, which is acts of parliament, which create new laws, amend existing law, or repeal existing law. Precedent, where decisions made in past court cases provide a guide for current judges when deciding sentences or allowing evidence. Common law, which is established legal tradition and practice, which forms a background to legal business in the United Kingdom. And lastly, European law, laws passed by the European Union that are binding on our government, such as the General Data Protection Regulation or GDPR.
Trade unions are a key example of the right to representation. And trade unions have several roles. They represent workers in a specific part of the economy. They represent their members by campaigning for higher wages, better conditions, or recognition of their rights. Employees who are subject to formal disciplinary procedures or meetings have a right to be represented in those by a trade union representative. And employees cannot be stopped from joining a trade union. Trade unions also provide advice and guidance to employees who feel they may have been maltreated or discriminated against.
There are many different types of crime in the UK, and some are considered to be much more serious than others. For example, very serious crimes would include things like terrorism, rape, sexual assault, manslaughter, and murder. Serious crime would include things like actual bodily harm, assault, battery, and hate crimes. Moderate crimes would be things like serious fraud, trespass, domestic abuse, and arson. Less serious crimes would be major tax evasion, antisocial behavior, and shoplifting. And trivial crimes would be things like minor fraud, minor tax evasion, speeding offenses, and things like littering.
There are many factors which affect crime rates, such as the socioeconomic status of an area. Areas with few higher-income residents tend to have higher crime rates. The urban status of an area. Urban and inner-city areas tend to have higher crime rates. Drug and alcohol abuse. Individuals with drug or alcohol issues are more likely to commit crimes. The level of police presence. Areas with larger numbers of visible police generally have lower crime rates. Levels of education. Areas where the general average level of education is higher tend to have lower crime rates. And current levels of sentencing. A higher general level of sentencing can act as a deterrent which can reduce crime rates.
There are many different types of sentence in the UK. These ones are particularly likely to crop up on the exam. Prison sentences, up to life imprisonment, can range from maximum security to minimum security open prisons. There are suspended sentences, prison sentences which only begin if the individual reoffends. There is the option of community service, a set number of unpaid work hours to help their local community. Custodial sentences which are remand into an institution or an order to attend a police station regularly. There are fines, orders to pay to cover costs and damage caused by a crime. And tags and other methods where the police or authorities can keep track of the actions of an individual.
When weighing up an appropriate sentence, judges must consider several things. Firstly, legislation. Legislation might give boundaries for the minimum and maximum possible sentence that can be handed down. Secondly, public safety. The primary and most important purpose of all sentences is to keep the general public safe. Thirdly, rehabilitation. Is the sentence given likely to lead to the rehabilitation of the individual? Four, proportionality. Is the sentence proportionate to the crime the individual has committed? And lastly, deterrence. Will the sentence handed down deter other people from committing this type of crime?
The youth justice system deals with individuals over the age of criminal responsibility, 10, but not yet adults, 18. And the primary aim of the youth justice system is to prevent reoffending. The carer or guardian of the young person must be informed if an arrest occurs. And a responsible adult must be present at the interview, unless there are exceptional circumstances, such as an immediate danger to public safety. Minor offenses may well be tried by a specialist youth court. And sentences are generally slightly more lenient and may include youth offender's institutes.
There are several international treaties which deal with human rights. The UN Universal Declaration on Human Rights in 1948 set out basic and universal fundamental human rights. This was followed by the European Convention on Human Rights in 1953, which was set out by the Council of Europe, which is distinct from the EU, and established basic human rights in Europe and set up the European Court of Human Rights, the ECHR. The UN Convention on the Rights of a Child in 1989 set out basic and universal fundamental human rights which are specific to children, such as the right to a basic education and freedom from slavery.
International law governs the relations between nation states. It's formed from treaties, agreements, and general custom and practice. International law also sets out the basic rules for war. For example, the non-targeting of civilians, rules on the treatment of prisoners of war, and rules on how and when it is legitimate to declare war. International law also plays an important part in protecting the victims of conflict and disaster, and sets out the rules on legitimate asylum and how refugees are treated.
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