All ABOUT Ancient Egypt: Mythology, History and its Incredible Culture

The ancient Egyptians established one of the most amazing civilizations in history. Their rich culture and remarkable works that have stood the test of time were only possible thanks to the blessings of one of the gods that shaped the world.

In the beginning of everything, there was only a giant chaotic ocean called Noon and nothing else. But in these waters, a great pyramidal mound emerged. At the top of this mound was a lotus flower, which when it blossomed, unfurled a strong light that spread out and scared away the darkness. The source of all this light was Ra, the Sun God.

Ra was alone and begat the first generation of gods. Shu, the god of air, and Tefnut, the goddess of rain, were born. The universe was still dominated by the immense mass of primordial waters. Shu and Tefnut plunged into the waters to explore their immensity. Ra was distressed to find that his children were not returning. Fearing he would never see them again, he sent Hathor to find them. Shu and Tefnut returned safe. Ra's joy was such that the tears from his eyes gave birth to human beings.

After returning, the descendants of Ra begot Geb, god of the earth, and Nut, goddess of the sky. This is how Heaven and Earth were created.

The great God Ra ruled the universe sovereignly with the title of the first Pharaoh. The god offered Egypt several sacred animals, such as the ox and the lion, but his greatest gift was the creation of the River Nile. Around its banks, man would build a civilization to please the gods.

In his human form, Ra was worshiped by the Egyptians as God and Pharaoh. But as he grew older and his glory faded, men began to worship the serpent Apep, which angered Ra. Ra ordered the Lioness God Sekhmet to organize a great slaughter to punish the men. Many of those who survived Sekhmet's attack drowned in the flood of blood that followed. Ra's earthly reign seemed to be nearing its end, and he retired to his solar boat. In it, the god traversed the skies during the day, but during the night, he would enter the Underworld, the realm of the dead. In the Underworld, he faced the serpent Apep. Each sunrise meant a new victory for the god over darkness.

The gods Nut and Geb gave birth to a powerful offspring: Isis, Nephthys, Seth, and Osiris. They would take over the government of the world while Ra reigned in the heavens. Osiris went on to reign over the world, occupying the throne that was formerly Ra's, leading humanity to civilization. But the throne of the new god was not secure, for his brother Seth wanted to take all the power for himself. This was the beginning of the saga of the gods of Egypt.

After replacing Ra, the deity who gave birth to the Egyptian world, Osiris became the new supreme god. He chose Isis as his wife and began a new and prosperous reign. Osiris showed civilization to men who, until that moment, lived in a primitive way. The god taught them agriculture, weaving, and how to make bread, and also to use laws that would give order where before there was only chaos. Egyptian civilization began to flourish under the reign of the kindly god Osiris.

But Osiris had a powerful and ambitious brother, Seth. His kingdom was situated in the arid desert surrounding Egypt. For this reason, Seth envied his brother, who had a fertile and prosperous kingdom. Osiris had an affair with Nephthys. Set's wife. From this union, Anubis, the god of the dead, was born. Enraged by his own brother's betrayal, Seth set his revenge. The god of dry lands and the personification of evil invited Osiris to a great feast in his honor. During the feast, Seth presented the guests with a beautiful coffin, showing himself available to gift it to whoever would fit into it perfectly. Osiris was invited to test it. Soon after settling in, Seth closed the coffin and locked the god inside. The evil god ordered the coffin to be thrown into the River Nile, putting an end to the life of the Lord of Egypt.

Isis mourned the loss of her beloved husband. The tears flowed into the Nile River, giving rise to the traditional floods. The goddess and her sister Nephthys searched for the body of Osiris. After finding it, Isis tried to hide it, but Seth found the body and quartered it into 14 pieces. The cruel god scattered the pieces of Osiris all over Egypt. Isis, with the help of Anubis, managed to recover all the pieces of her husband. Anubis united these pieces of the god and embalmed Osiris's body. With her divine powers, the goddess resurrected her beloved, but Osiris went on to reign in the world of the dead.

After coming back to life, Osiris had a son with Isis. His name was Horus, who vowed to overthrow Seth, the usurper of the throne that was rightfully his. Seth, the god of destruction, had murdered Osiris, the reigning god of Egyptian mythology. He took his brother's throne for himself and initiated his reign of terror. Osiris, however, had begotten an heir together with the Goddess Isis. His name was Horus. He was a falcon god, and it had been prophesied that he would reign over the heavens and bring back the light over Egypt, thereby ending the darkness brought by Seth.

As an adult, Horus decided to reclaim his throne, usurped by his uncle. This strife would bring even more chaos to Egypt, and so it would be tried by the gods. It was decided in the Divine Court, presided over by the solar god Ra, that the one who was worthy to sit on the throne would have to conquer several disputes. And so, the duels between Seth and Horus began.

Seth had the affection of Ra, since the usurper was protecting the solar god from the serpent Apep while he was traversing through the sky. The Desert god proposed a challenge to Horus. Both of them were to become hippopotamuses and remain submerged for 3 months. Horus expected that his mother, the Goddess Isis, would take advantage of Seth's vulnerability to kill him, but the goddess did not have the nerve. Therefore, she was powerless to attack her brother. This treacherousness angered Horus, who attacked his mother, chopping off her head. The god Thoth, a deity of knowledge, saved the goddess by putting a cow's head instead of the old one.

The quarrel between Seth and Horus lasted for many years. As they fought in the desert, Seth managed to pluck out Horus's eyes. With the aid of Hathor, the goddess of love, Horus got his eyes back. The Heavenly Court of the Gods required Seth and Horus to reconcile. The malignant god, while feigning goodwill, invited Horus to a feast in his palace. But overnight, Seth tried to abuse his nephew, rendering him undignified for the throne. Yet, Horus managed to fight back and prevented the god from spreading his poisonous seed.

Horus then decided to take vengeance with the assistance of the Goddess Isis. The god placed his holy seed in lettuce leaves offered to Seth by the Goddess Isis. The god of the barren deserts devoured the tainted lettuce unsuspectingly and was envenomed. Seth started to wilt in plain sight, and from his forehead, a glowing disc burst out. Thoth grabbed and fixed it on her own head. Seth was embarrassed, and finally, after 80 years, the court granted Horus his birthright throne. Isis could not have been any prouder to see her son with Osiris assuming his father's throne. Seth was bound to travel with Ra in his solar barge, and his raucous cries were audible through the noise of the thunder coming from the sky. This is how Horus's reign over Egypt started, and among his descendants were all of the Pharaohs who once reigned over Egypt.

Mesopotamia is considered the cradle of the first great civilizations. Among them are the Sumerians, who created well-organized kingdoms at the beginning of the Bronze Age. Obviously, at that time, human beings did not only live in Mesopotamia; they were in much of the globe, and most lived as nomads or in small villages. Some tribes migrated to North Africa in about 5,500 BC, where they created villages and spread out along the Nile Valley, more precisely in the regions now known as Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt. The region was chosen for the existence of the famous Nile River. Besides being the most extensive river in the world, it was also responsible for the development of Egyptian culture. The ancient Egyptians called the Nile River Iteru, meaning "Great River." They considered it a gift from the gods to all living beings. Every year, the Nile River has periods of high tide, irrigating the soil around it. The debris makes the land dark and fertile and makes it possible to farm and graze rural animals. One of the names that the Egyptians used to refer to their land was Kemet, a term that can be translated as "Black Earth," underlining the importance of fertility in the soil. The most prominent region is the Delta of the Nile, where the river is divided into several branches flowing into the Mediterranean Sea, where the largest number of settlements are. As with the Mesopotamian peoples, the dominance of agriculture was the main stimulus to boost trade and cultural development of the early Egyptians. As time went by, settlements became independent cities. Soon, the first rulers began to emerge, who declared themselves sovereign kings of their territories.

In 3,100 BC, a king of Upper Egypt began a military campaign against the other cities. The identity of this king is discussed among historians. Archaeological records indicate the existence of a semi-legendary king who, according to the belief at the time, would be a descendant of Horus. This mysterious king was probably known by the name of Narmer or Menes. There are strong indications that Narmer would be the name used. More complete studies indicate that Menes was an honorary title, which means "he who perseveres." Narmer was successful in his campaign and unified the people of Lower and Upper Egypt under his command. He was the first Pharaoh of Egypt. Narmer began the first Egyptian dynasties. This was followed by 30 dynasties over the centuries. The city of Memphis was founded by Narmer. For a long time, it was the capital of ancient Egypt due to its geographical location, which guaranteed a strategic control point in Egyptian territory. The city had a port on the banks of the Nile River, where factories and workshops were built, producing ceramic jars, clothes, or dyes that were transported to the neighboring cities by boats along the river.

Even in this period of their history, the Egyptians already had conflicts with the neighboring peoples. For example, some Nubian and Lebanese tribes, who did not accept the dominant power of the Egyptians in most fertile territories. These tribes constantly rebelled against the Egyptians and attacked smaller villages and cities, provoking violent fighting and making it difficult to distribute goods throughout the region. It is possible that Pharaoh Narmer married Neithotep, a princess from North Africa. The marriage would have political objectives to appease disputes on Egyptian territory. Neithotep was the first queen of Egypt. Perhaps she was the first female pharaoh after Narmer's death. If so, she was the first woman in history to rule a dynasty. Neithotep's name was found in several places, such as tombstones and sacred objects. This underlines her importance as co-founder of the first dynasty. She is the oldest queen of ancient Egypt whose name is known by historians.

During the great history of ancient Egypt, the Pharaohs played a more important role than the traditional figure attributed to kings and emperors. The Egyptians considered them sacred beings. To the Egyptians, according to the beliefs of the time, the Pharaohs had inherited divine blood. They were descendants of Horus, and for that reason, only those who belonged to that same lineage were entitled to the throne. This explains why some women have taken over throughout Egyptian history. In contemporary peoples, only men had the right to rule, but the Egyptians always chose a woman with divine blood over a man without that trait. The Pharaohs were not only in charge of governing; they were also the supreme commanders of the army, the highest magistrates, and the highest priests. The Pharaoh was the human figure closest to the gods. Despite all the benefits available to the Pharaohs, their lives were not particularly easy. Some took on the burden of governance of a nation before the age of 12. The heir to the royal throne was prepared from childhood to fill the position. He had to learn military tactics, the history of kingdoms, and military conquests. He also had to learn to read, write, and memorize religious rites. Despite the authority of the Pharaohs, they rarely remained in power for long. Their reign was often interrupted by invaders or coups. To prolong the reign of the Pharaohs, every year ritualistic festivals took place. The Opet festivals. The objective was to rejuvenate the Pharaoh and his bond with the gods. When a Pharaoh was able to remain in power for about 30 years, a great party was organized to exalt his reign. At death, he was honored with parties, songs, and rituals of passage to the other world.

Around 2,686 BC, the phase known as the Old Kingdom, also known as the Pyramid Age, began. In this period, Egypt was already established as an empire, having commercial relations with the Lebanese, Palestinian, and Mesopotamian peoples. Egypt had become a land of great riches. During the Old Kingdom, there were great artistic and architectural breakthroughs. The paintings that adorned the temples and palaces were made with great skill, whose proportions were calculated with high precision. The dyes came from the extract of plants and minerals. Insects and animal blood were even used to achieve more vivid colors. As a result, many paintings maintain their colors and splendor today. The paintings could represent from everyday life to great events, such as bountiful harvests, the crowning of pharaohs, or natural disasters. The gods and sacred rituals were prominent in the artistic representations. Many of the most famous stories of the Egyptian Pantheon were told through paintings and carvings on palace walls and tombs.

In the economy, all production was accounted for and recorded, which enabled a more accurate allocation of resources. Government officials collected taxes, recruited peasants to work on crops or in construction, and headed the legal system, commanding patrols of soldiers and prosecuting crimes. During the Old Kingdom, the military area also progressed. The soldiers already had breastplates made of wool or leather, shields made of wood and covered with leather, and the iconic khopesh sword, also of this period.

Around 2,200 BC, there was a great period of drought in Egypt, which lasted 140 years. It caused hunger in the population and a decline in economic and social power. Instability ravaged Egypt, and the pharaoh's government lost control of his territories. Some provinces further away from the capital revolted and declared independence. The leaders of the rebel provinces stopped paying taxes to the central government and began to enrich their own coffers. In the end, a kind of mafia leader was born, as they hired criminals and deserters as personal protectors. Two groups stood out: one commanded Lower Egypt from the city of Heracleopolis, and the other commanded Upper Egypt from the city of Thebes.

Around 2050 BC, the forces of Thebes, commanded by Mentuhotep II, defeated the rulers of Heracleopolis, unifying Egypt again and beginning the period of the Middle Kingdom. The sands of Egypt hold secrets and stories that awaken our imagination and will to unravel the past of one of the greatest civilizations in history. After the difficult times of the Old Kingdom, the Egyptians managed to recover their ancient territories and trade routes. It was the beginning of a new era of prosperity. This new phase in Egyptian history is known as the Middle Kingdom, between 2050 BC and 1710 BC.

After reestablishing military control in Egypt, the economy had to recover. New irrigation systems were built, besides new monuments to the gods. Pharaoh Mentuhotep II began a military campaign to conquer Nubia, a region rich in gold and precious jewelry and very lucrative for the debilitated Egyptian coffers. The fight against the Nubians lasted many years, and despite their insistence, the Egyptians were unable to totally subjugate their opponents, proving the great military capability of the African tribes. Mentuhotep II died after reigning for 51 years. He was buried together with his six wives in a funeral complex in Deir el-Bahari.

After Egypt regained its financial power without facing great external threats, the Empire entered an audit period. During the Middle Kingdom, the concept of life beyond death gained notoriety. Dying, something that was already seen as a rite of passage, became even more important in the daily life of the Egyptians. The rulers also recovered the habit of erecting pyramids as tombs, ordering the construction of ever larger monuments.

The construction of the pyramids began in the Old Kingdom. Djoser's pyramid was the first built around 2630 BC, located northwest of the city of Memphis. The Djoser pyramid and his tomb complex are considered the oldest monumental structures in the world, designed by architect Imhotep. During his life, Imhotep was probably one of the most important men in Egypt, with knowledge in several areas such as medicine, architecture, religion, and carpentry. Imhotep belonged to a small group of plebeians who received the status of deities in Egypt. This distinction was usually reserved for the most important members of the nobility. Imhotep's historical existence is proven through two contemporary inscriptions on the base or pedestal of one of Djoser's statues. Imhotep was such an important figure that even after his death, he continued to be revered. His grave was hidden in complete secrecy and remains unknown to this day.

So far, 123 pyramids have been found and accounted for in Egypt, some of them already practically in ruins. The decision to build pyramidal tombs is justified because this is the safest way to erect a monument, because the base is wider and heavier than the top. Even so, some pyramids collapsed in antiquity due to irregularities in their shape or the wrong choice of terrain. When this happened, the builder responsible for the work was executed. There was also the famous bent pyramid, which remains to this day; however, its shape has changed during construction.

The construction of the pyramids required great physical effort and complete logistics. Each granite stone weighs approximately 2.5 tons, having been extracted from quarries sometimes located 800 km away from the construction site. They were then placed on barges and transported along the Nile River. After being unloaded, the stones were transported with ropes and sleds to the construction site. There, they were cut and sanded until they reached the necessary shape. Only then were they dragged on ramps to their final destination. The exact number of workers participating in construction is unknown. It is believed that more than 30,000 men took part in the efforts to erect these monuments. The majority were free men who received a salary and tax exemption. Many slaves were also used, entrusted with the most arduous and tiring tasks. The pyramids were built by order of the Pharaohs, who wanted to use them as a tomb and symbol of power and authority. The pyramids also had a symbolic character for the Egyptians, who believed that the origin of the earth came from a primordial mound in pyramidal form.

The most famous pyramids are the pyramids of Giza and the necropolis of Giza, near Cairo. The necropolis has three pyramids: the highest is Khufu's, the middle is Khafre's, and the smallest is Menkaure's. There are still some smaller monuments near the pyramids, known as the Pyramids of Queens. The Great Sphinx is also part of the necropolis. At their peak, the pyramids were finished with a cover of polished white limestone, which reflected the sunlight at great distances, and at the top were placed stones adorned with hieroglyphic writing. Possibly, some pyramids would have a top made of or coated in gold. It was a breathtaking vision. The Pyramid of Khufu was an impressive 146.54 meters high. It is the oldest of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World and the only one that still exists.

Almost all the pyramids were plundered inside and out. The limestone cover and the granite stones were removed for use in other buildings. Over the centuries, the justification for this enormous dedication to building gigantic funerary monuments lay in the religion of the ancient Egyptians, which strongly influenced the people's view of life and death. The Egyptians left no written sources that clearly explained their beliefs. For this reason, modern historians use the paintings and scriptures left in temples, pyramids, and tombs as their source. Another source of this research are the three collections of hieroglyphic texts from different periods. These texts are the Book of Pyramids, the Book of Sarcophagi, and the Book of the Dead.

The ancient Egyptians believed that those who had divine blood could be resurrected after a few hundred years, recovering their place as rulers. This concept of death and rebirth explains why the Pharaohs created environments where they could preserve their bodies and return to life. Mummification was intended to preserve the body that would be retrieved by the sovereign. In the Pharaoh's tomb were also placed precious objects, clothes, and jewelry. During the Old Kingdom, his personal servants, animals, and priests were also sacrificed. In many cases, his wife or wives were also buried together with the Pharaoh, but this practice lost importance in the Middle Kingdom. The sarcophagi were also of vital importance in the incarnation of the Pharaoh. The Pharaoh's face was carved into the sarcophagus with the greatest possible precision, thus when the spirit returned to the body, he could remember what his physical appearance was like in life.

Today, Islam is the official religion of Egypt. Most of the population follow Sunni precepts. Even so, there are neopagan groups that follow religion and the ancient gods. This practice is known as Kemetism. The last Pharaoh who ruled Egypt in the Middle Kingdom was Amenemhat III. During his reign, he allowed for tribes of Semitic Asiatic peoples to settle in the Delta of the Nile River. These tribes sought refuge from the growing threats of the Assyrian Empire. These people were known as the Hyksos, a term that can be translated to "Shepherd Kings."

In 1650 BC, uncontrolled floods in the Nile destroyed part of the Egyptian plantations, affecting the economy and weakening the Empire again. The Hyksos took advantage of the instability and controlled some cities built in the Nile Delta. The Hyksos established their dynasty and elected a Pharaoh, following the Egyptian model of government. The Egyptian rulers retreated to Thebes, where they were trapped between the Hyksos kingdom in the North and the Kushite Kingdom in the South. This phase of Egyptian history became known as the Second Intermediate Period. Despite being invaders, the Hyksos also added their influence to Egyptian culture, bringing good quality horses, more advanced war chariots, and new weaving techniques.

For 30 years, the Egyptians fought against the Hyksos. Then, the military Pharaoh Ahmose I won several military victories and expelled the Hyksos from Egypt. This regaining of power by the Egyptians started the New Kingdom.

Egypt, the land of pyramids and the Pharaohs, full of lavish stories and impressive deeds, which survived in time thanks to the paintings and monuments built by the ancient Egyptians. During the New Kingdom, it became clear that the Egyptian pharaohs and their military forces were not up to foreign threats. As a solution, the Egyptians started to hire troops of mercenaries from Nubia and Libya. As a reward for their services, the mercenaries received land where they put their families to live and work for the Pharaoh. Prisoners were also used in the army, usually on the front lines. Better combat tactics were also developed. Autonomous troops of up to some 6,000 men were commanded by well-trained officers. Soldiers from humble families received a salary for their enlistment, but they practically had no chance to advance in their military career, as this right was reserved for the children of nobler families.

Also during the New Kingdom, the Egyptians began to develop their maritime fleet. The Egyptians already had well-designed and maneuverable boats; however, they were not enough to carry many soldiers and equipment. This led to the creation of beautiful war galleys with a slender and threatening design. The Pharaohs of the New Kingdom created a period of unprecedented prosperity by protecting borders and strengthening diplomatic ties with their neighbors. Military campaigns led by Pharaoh Thutmose I led to the conquest of new lands, guaranteeing the dominance of Palestine, Syria, and Lebanon. Thutmose I ordered new constructions in several cities and elaborated new works of art, among them a stela where his achievements as a ruler were recorded. His successors maintained territorial control, fighting rebellions in the conquered lands. His grandson, Thutmose III, was considered one of the most important pharaohs of ancient Egypt. Thutmose III had great military activity with more than 17 campaigns and maintained his grandfather's building momentum.

During the reign of Thutmose II, there was a revolt in Canaan. The Canaanites were led by the king of the city of Kadesh and assembled troops to expel the Egyptians from their territories. This dispute originated the famous Battle of Megiddo, which has enormous archaeological importance. It was the first battle to be recorded and detailed in writing in history. The Egyptians described the details of the battle on the walls of the Temple of Amun-Ra, which today is in the city of Luxor, the ancient Thebes. Thutmose III gathered his army and fought against the rebels in a plain. His victory caused the Canaanites to retreat into the city of Megiddo, on top of a hill. The battle ended after Megiddo was besieged for 7 months, which led to the surrender of the city. Also, in the Battle of Megiddo, the composite bow was used for the first time, a more effective version than the bows used previously. The victory was very profitable for the Egyptians. According to the reports, they captured 894 war chariots, two of them covered in gold, and 2,000 horses. After this victory and subsequent conquest of the territories, Egypt reached its peak. Its territorial domination started at the Euphrates River in Syria and went to Napata in the Kushite territory. Thutmose III still attacked the kingdom of Mitanni, that belonged to the Hurrians. He won again and annexed new lands to Egypt and a new contingent of captive soldiers. Thutmose III is believed to have visited the Greek city of Crete, probably the first Pharaoh of Upper Egypt to travel by sea and visit a foreign nation.

But not everything went well for the Egyptians during the New Kingdom. A turbulent period erupted when a new Pharaoh took the throne. Pharaoh Akhenaten was one of the most controversial figures in Egyptian history, and his life is full of mysteries and questions. Akhenaten wanted to extinguish the cult and traditional deities of Egypt. He challenged more than 1,500 years of religious traditions when he decided to adopt only one God, decreeing that the god Aten was the only creator of all things and living beings. The god Aten was the personification of the sun, source of light and warmth to the world. The Pharaoh chose the name Akhenaten, which can be translated as "he who praises Aten." Akhenaten was a sloppy Pharaoh in diplomatic and military relations. Neighboring kingdoms severed relations with Egypt, and some became threats again. The ancient Egyptians later referred to Akhenaten as the "Mad Pharaoh." The monarch constantly showed his religious fervor, affirming, "Aten lives, there is no other except him." This behavior infuriated many priests and citizens, causing riots and violence in parts of the New Kingdom.

Aten's main wife was Queen Nefertiti, who became renowned when her bust was found in 1912 by German archaeologists. Nefertiti is believed to have been a beautiful woman. The sculpture was never finished, with one eye missing, so that her image would not provoke the anger and jealousy of the Egyptian goddesses. After Akhenaten's death, Nefertiti disappeared from the historical records, and her fate is unknown. Akhenaten reigned for about 17 years. This time was enough for Egypt to lose much influence and dominion. Aten's cause of death is unknown. There are suspicions that he was murdered by a group of priests who worshiped the ancient gods. Akhenaten had many children, one of them would have special prominence in Egyptian history. His son was the famous Tutankhamun.

After Akhenaten's death, Egypt went through a troubled period. His son was still too young to assume the throne, and his daughters could not take power because there was a living male heir. An enigmatic figure took the throne: Ay. There are debates about whether Ay was actually Nefertiti, who would have assumed the throne and changed her name. Another possibility is that Ay was Akhenaten's son-in-law, taking the throne by marrying one of the daughters of the former Pharaoh. Noble I and a general named Horemheb also appeared. Both served Akhenaten and Nefertiti. It is probable that I was Nefertiti's father. He aspired to reach the throne and had members of the royal family murdered. The young Tutankhamun and his half-sister, Ankhsenamun, were rescued and taken to Thebes.

Tutankhamun was crowned Pharaoh at only 9 years of age. To strengthen the lineage, he married his half-sister, who was only 11 years old. Due to Tutankhamun's age, Ay ruled Egypt with the position of vizier, a kind of regent. His government was supported by General Horemheb. As the years progressed, Tutankhamun had a more active and authoritarian voice, ordering the construction of temples for the ancient gods of Egypt. This allowed to restore the cult of different deities. In 1324 BC, Tutankhamun died at the age of 14. The reason for his death has given rise to various speculations: disease, poisoning, or murder. The last option was not unlikely because Tutankhamun was a threat to Ay's plans. Another event that reinforces the hypothesis of murder is that right after Tutankhamun's death, his wife Ankhsenamun sent letters to the king of the Hittites asking him to send one of his children to marry her and be crowned Pharaoh of Egypt. The Hittites and Egyptians were always enemies. This shows that Ankhsenamun's request was motivated by fear and urgency. With reluctance, the king of the Hittites sent one of his sons to meet Ankhsenamun, but mysteriously, this prince never entered Egypt. It is likely that he was murdered by spies following Ay's orders. Ankhsenamun ended up marrying Ay, most probably against her will. A few months later, after her marriage to Ay, poor Ankhsenamun died abruptly. It is not difficult to deduce that this too was the order of the cruel Ay.

Tutankhamun has great importance for the history of ancient Egypt. His tomb, although small in comparison with other pharaohs, was almost intact when it was discovered. Tutankhamun's tomb was found in the Valley of the Kings in 1922 by Howard Carter. The tomb was not desecrated by thieves, and this originated the famous legend of the Tutankhamun curse, in which if someone violated the pharaoh's tomb, he would suffer a terrible death. In the tomb were found three amphorae of wine, one of them with white wine, and a dagger whose blade was created with the iron of a meteorite. The tomb also had baskets with cereals, jewels, clothes, statues of the god Anubis, and two small mummies of female fetuses, probably daughters of Tutankhamun, born prematurely. The mummy of Tutankhamun was kept in three sarcophagi. The smaller one, which kept the young Pharaoh's body, was made of gold. Although Tutankhamun's story is full of murder, betrayal, and intrigue, it deserves to be known and remembered to this day. As for Ay, he seems to have died of old age, as he had no heirs. He was succeeded by General Horemheb. Horemheb, although he was a military general, was accepted by the people as a pharaoh because he successfully served Egypt in the wars. Egyptian history would still have many twists and turns in the future, and the arrival of the famous Pharaoh Ramesses II would cause fear in the hearts of Egypt's enemies.

The great Egyptian Pyramids have remained firm over the centuries. Their monumental splendor showed the effort of the Egyptian people to maintain the glory of their empire. After the tragic reign of Pharaoh Tutankhamun, Egypt was ruled by a former general named Horemheb. Horemheb established order in Egypt, creating stricter laws, which included as punishment for crimes cutting off the nose of the evildoer and exiling him into the desert. Horemheb continued the struggle to reestablish the cult of the ancient gods. He even tried to erase the records of Akhenaten's reign, referring to the ancient pharaoh as a demon who wanted to destroy the beliefs in the true gods. Horemheb had no heirs, so he named as his successor Ramesses I, his closest friend and a general of the Egyptian Army. Ramesses I assumed the throne at about 50 years of age and reigned for only 2 years. He was replaced by his son, Seti I. Seti I fought against the Hittites and conquered the city of Kadesh. The Hittites established a peace agreement with the Egyptians that lasted 15 years. Seti I recovered other territories that had belonged to Egypt before the reign of Akhenaten. Seti I also stayed a short time on the throne, as he died at only 40 years of age. The mummy of Seti I is considered one of the most beautiful and most preserved until today. It is currently in the Egyptian Museum in Cairo. Seti I's successor was his son, the famous Ramesses II. There were 11 sovereigns named Ramesses in the history of Egypt, but only Ramesses II is known as Ramesses the Great. He is considered the greatest Pharaoh in Egypt, and his reign was the most prosperous and extensive in Egyptian history.

When Ramesses II was about 10 years old, his father took him with him on military campaigns. Ramesses was present in battles in Libya, Canaan, and Syria. Ramesses grew up as a young warrior prince and was considered impetuous and arrogant. At the beginning of his reign, he traveled to Phoenicia to define new boundaries for the Egyptian territories. However, he entered the territory of the Hittites and claimed the lands conquered at the time by Thutmose III. The proud Hittites considered it an offense, and the war between the two empires started again. The king of the Hittites summoned many soldiers and asked for reinforcements from cities and towns allied to the Hittites. Ramesses II also had a large army composed of Egyptian soldiers, African, and Lebanese mercenaries. Ramesses had a strong and impatient personality. This made him take the initiative and march towards Kadesh, which had been reconquered by the Hittites. The Egyptian Army was organized in four divisions. Although they were numerically inferior to the Hittites, they were better trained and disciplined. Suddenly, two Hittite soldiers gave themselves up to the Egyptians. They claimed to be deserters, but in fact, they were spies. After gaining the trust of the Egyptians, the spies passed false information that the Hittite Army was still far from Kadesh. Ramesses wanted to take the opportunity to quickly reconquer the city and advance with his personal guard and a division of his army, while the other Egyptian forces advanced at a slower pace. Already near the city of Kadesh, Ramesses realized that he had fallen into a trap. The Hittites emerged from different directions and surrounded the Egyptian troops. It was such an unexpected event that it was recorded as the first military ambush in history. Even surrounded, Ramesses and his personal guard used their war chariots and managed to make way against the enemy troops, breaking the siege. Meanwhile, the Egyptian infantry contained the advance of the enemies. Ramesses managed to regroup with the other divisions of his army that came to his aid. Then, he launched a counterattack that quickly dispersed the Hittites. That day, the king of the Hittites lost his brother, who was killed during the battle. Finally, the two forces retreated, both with many casualties and exhausted soldiers. Ramesses retreated to Egypt, and the Hittite king to the north of his territory. Technically, the fight had ended in a tie, but both leaders declared to have come out as winners of the battle.

After a few more years of conflict and hostilities, Egypt finally signed a peace treaty with the Hittite Empire. It was a remarkable event, as it was the first peace treaty in history. The peace treaty was also motivated by the growing threat of the Assyrian Empire. They were increasingly strong and were a danger to Egyptians and Hittites. In the peace treaty, the Egyptian Empire and the Hittite Empire promised to support each other against external threats, something that delayed the advance of the Assyrians for some time. For almost being defeated, Ramesses II became wiser and more cautious during his reign. He maintained the alliance with the Hittites. Strange as it may seem, Ramesses II married three or four daughters, but there are discussions about whether this really happened. Also, during the reign of Ramesses II, the cities grew in size and population. Many temples and other works were built, bringing more prosperity to Egypt. Today, the name Ramesses II became famous for being used in Hollywood movies, where he is pointed out as the Pharaoh of the biblical Exodus, responsible for imprisoning and enslaving the Hebrews in Egypt. However, more complete studies point out that Thutmose III was the Pharaoh of the Exodus. Ramesses II will have died at over 90 years of age, something quite unusual at that time.

After the death of Ramesses II, Egypt entered again an unstable period. His children died abruptly, and the Egyptian throne became empty several times, something very dangerous for a powerful nation. The responsibility was assumed by Merneptah, the 13th son of Ramesses II. Merneptah was already over 60 years old when he assumed the throne. He did not have the strength to govern the great number of cities and provinces. With the government weakened, the priests of the Temple of Amun came to have even more political power, since they claimed to be the link between the gods and the people. To further complicate matters, Egypt's wealth attracted other greedy kingdoms. Egypt was attacked by pirates from the coast of the Greek Islands of Western Anatolia. These pirates became known as the Sea Peoples. The Sea Peoples were no ordinary pirates. The brutality and frequency of their attacks destabilized the economy and the government of the great Bronze Age Empires. They destroyed almost the entire Minoan and Mycenaean kingdoms. They also devastated the Hittite Empire, which was already weakened after several civil wars. We don't know if the Sea Peoples were a single tribe or a confederation of tribes that joined together to loot and invade the Near East, but they were numerous, skilled sailors, and combatants on land. The invasions of the Sea Peoples were probably motivated by natural disasters: earthquakes and tsunamis that devastated the Aegean islands and the coastal regions of Greece and Turkey. These natural disasters destabilized much of the dominant kingdoms and were responsible for the decline of the Bronze civilization on the island of Crete. Pharaoh Merneptah managed to stop the invasion of the Sea Peoples in the Battle of the Delta, but some years later, Pharaoh Ramesses III managed to expel the Sea Peoples from Egypt. The Sea Peoples continued to devastate and dominate territories in Palestine. The impact of these invasions was so great that the Sea Peoples are held responsible for the collapse of the Bronze Age. Finally, Ramesses III followed the Egyptian tradition of turning enemies into allies. He established agreements with the Nubians and the Libyans. Egypt started to hire mercenaries from the Sea Peoples. Ramesses III was a strong Pharaoh, but his reign was turbulent. He was murdered at the age of 65 in a coup organized by one of his wives who wanted his son as the next heir to the throne.

Egypt was financially exhausted. Its coffers were emptied by the war against the pirate invaders. The situation was so bad that the population's food was rationed. During this period, the first labor strike in history occurred when workers from various areas, not receiving their grain, refused to work for the Pharaoh. Egypt had entered a vertiginous decline marked by hunger, violence, and corruption. The empire was devastated. For about two decades, Egypt was again divided into different dynasties. Ambitious leaders confronted each other in small battles to dominate territories. Egypt entered a phase known as the Third Intermediate Period. During this period, chaos reigned. Part of Egypt was commanded by Pharaohs of Lebanese origin, while another part was ruled by Pharaohs of Nubian origin. The cunning priests of the Temple of Amun took advantage of the situation and controlled Thebes and other nearby territories. The Assyrians also took advantage of the fall of the Hittite Empire and the weakening of the Egyptians. They invaded Egypt, and in the conquered cities, they placed Assyrian rulers to control the population. Under the rule of foreign forces, the once proud Egyptian Empire was subjugated and impotent, but it would not be the end of its history. There were still many unexpected events.

Throughout its history, Egypt went through periods of glory and power, but it also faced difficulties during terrible droughts that brought hunger and suffering. The wealthiness of Egypt also attracted the attention of many powerful realms. Many enemies wanted to invade the Egyptian territories. In 525 BC, the Persians invaded Egypt, commanded by King Cambyses II. The Persians had already defeated the Babylonian Empire and nothing seemed to satisfy their ambitions for new territories. The Persian domination of Egypt lasted until 332 BC and was overthrown by a young and ambitious conqueror, Alexander the Great. Alexander seemed unstoppable. He conquered city after city, winning battles even under unfavorable conditions for his army. He dominated many Persian territories and, after defeating King Darius III in a great battle, besieged the city of Tyre in Phoenicia. After a great siege, the city was conquered. Alexander destroyed it as a punishment for non-surrender. Alexander and his army headed for Egypt. The Persian ruler who commanded Egypt had the good sense to surrender without offering much resistance. Alexander was received by the Egyptian people as a liberator. He was proclaimed as the son of the god Amun, receiving many treasures. Alexander spent a short time in Egypt, but during his stay, he founded the city of Alexandria, one of the most important cities of the ancient world. It would become the capital of Egypt in the following thousand years. With Egypt's dominion secured, Alexander set out for Mesopotamia to attack the heart of the Persian Empire.

After the death of Alexander the Great, the Egyptian government was controlled by the Macedonian general Ptolemy. He declared himself Pharaoh of Egypt and began the Ptolemaic dynasty. The influence of Greek culture brought by the Macedonians influenced much of Egyptian life, but this happened in a natural way. The Macedonian rulers respected and encouraged the traditional customs of Egypt. Over the years, pharaohs of Macedonian origin were represented as Egyptians. Marriages between Greeks and Egyptians became common, and gods of both cultures were merged. One example is the deity that received the name of Amon-Zeus. The military equipment of the Egyptians almost completely assumed the Greek style. Even commercial boats and war galleys began to be built in the Greek style, which was more advanced and robust. All the male pharaohs of this period of Egyptian history used the name Ptolemy to honor the founder of the Ptolemaic dynasty. The Ptolemies established a great trade route, mainly by sea, and this made Egypt prosper again. During the Ptolemaic dynasty, the famous Alexandria Library was also built, which had thousands of papyri and clay tablets with the most diverse registers and studies in areas of mathematics, philosophy, and architecture. The Ptolemaic kingdom went into decline with Ptolemy XIII. He was a detestable king, lazy in political affairs, easily corruptible, and cruel. He had relatives killed, including his brother, father, and mother. At the end of the Ptolemaic kingdom, Egypt was plunged into political chaos. Many Ptolemaic pharaohs were cruel tyrants; murders within the family were common.

While Egypt was going through another turbulent period, a new threat from the Mediterranean Sea was aimed at reaching the land of the Pharaohs. Rome had already conquered vast territories in much of the European continent and wanted to further expand its domains. The Roman Senate decided to intervene in the political situation of the Egyptians because Rome depended a lot on grains exported from Egypt. If another civil war occurred, Rome would run out of food for its legions. The famous Cleopatra was not the first with this name. She was part of the Ptolemaic dynasty, a direct descendant of Ptolemy I. In her childhood, she studied with Greek teachers and was educated in religious cults of different cultures. It was said that Cleopatra could speak eight languages. Cleopatra became Queen at 18, despite sharing power with Ptolemy XIII, her younger brother. She seems to have dealt with the kingdom's problems alone. At the beginning of her reign, she had serious problems. Egypt was facing another drought and period of hunger. As time went by, Cleopatra's younger brother began to confront his sister. He had the support of his childhood tutors and other nobles who preferred a male ruler. Cleopatra married Ptolemy XIII, but it was a merely symbolic marriage, for they never had a good relationship, nor did they consummate the union. Ptolemy XIII eventually removed Cleopatra from her position and began to reign alone. The Egyptian population revolted, and of course, Rome was watching everything, fearing another civil war in Egypt.

In 48 BC, Julius Caesar arrived in Egypt with his troops, staying in the Palace of Alexandria. Cleopatra, knowing the fame of the Roman general, did not waste time and sought to establish an alliance with him. Cleopatra was successful in her negotiations with Julius Caesar. The two became allies and lovers. Now, they needed to overthrow the usurper brother and recover the Egyptian throne. Caesar called troops to besiege Alexandria. This was followed by a series of clashes between the Romans and Ptolemy XIII's troops. Finally, a great battle took place on the west bank of the Nile River. Ptolemy XIII had about 20,000 men, and Julius Caesar had a smaller number of troops, but Caesar advanced with his army, which received Greek reinforcements. Both military forces advanced by land, while the boats traveled along the Nile River. It was a battle that took place on land and water. Caesar and Ptolemy followed the movements of the troops as they sailed on their boats. The battle on land was brutal. Ptolemy's troops were on higher ground and forced the Romans to retreat. Many Roman soldiers fled and swam towards the boats. During the confusion, Caesar's galley capsized with the weight of the men who climbed aboard. Julius Caesar had to swim to the river bank to survive. At the height of this confusion, the Greeks arrived to support Caesar. The Romans managed to regroup their troops and...

Counterattack with the help of the Greek allies, they conquered the Egyptian camp where tm's troops were. With this turnaround, tm's troops fled to the Egyptian boats. tm's boat also capsized. tmy was not as lucky as Caesar; he drowned because of his heavy armor, which dragged him to the bottom of the Nile.

After the battle, Cleopatra returned to the throne. Most of the conspirators were arrested or executed. In 44 BC, Julius Caesar was murdered in the Senate of Rome. Cleopatra sought a new alliance with General Mark Anthony. Mark Anthony and Cleopatra were married in Egypt, but Rome never considered this marriage official since Mark Anthony was already married to a Roman. Mark Anthony offered cleop ra vast territories that belonged to Rome in his will. He affirmed his desire to be buried in Alexandria. The Roman senate rebelled and gave General Octavian permission to go to war against Mark Anthony and Cleopatra. To face the situation, Cleopatra joined her Army to that of Mark Anthony. It was the largest Maritime Fleet ever seen in history. They left for Greece, where they were intercepted by the fleet of Roman ships. The maritime battle was disastrous for Mark Anthony and Cleopatra. Their naval fleet was destroyed by the Romans. Luckily, both managed to escape alive.

A year later, Octavian besieged Alexandria and defeated the city's defenses without much difficulty, destroying the plans and Ambitions of Mark Anthony and Cleopatra. Cleopatra was an enormously powerful woman. She managed to keep Egypt United and throughout her life protected the territory from being swallowed by Rome. Cleopatra's life and personality were so remarkable that they continued to be an inspiration to this day. In our Channel, we have a miniseries that tells in detail the incredible story of this great woman. Take a look at the videos.

After millennia of existence, memorable battles, and political intrigues, phonic Egypt lost its independence and became a province under Roman rule. The legacy of the ancient Egyptians is extremely valuable to human history, and of course, Egypt will continue to be remembered as the Cradle of one of the greatest civilizations.

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Anubis is the famous jackal-headed Egyptian god. He is a deity connected with the afterlife and funeral rites. The God is one of the oldest Egyptian deities. His role has changed over the centuries. Anubis was considered the main deity connected with death and god of the underworld, but this role was later taken over by the god Osiris. The Jackal God was also considered the deity of embalming and mummification. In funeral rituals, it was common for a priest to wear a jackal mask during the mummification process. The God was also considered the protector of tombs and cemeteries, protecting the bodies of those who had departed to the underworld.

Anubis is the son of the Goddess Nephthys, wife of Set, but her son was not born from the union with her husband. For Nephthys disguised herself as the Goddess Isis to unite with Osiris. In the face of such infidelity, Set plotted against Osiris, killing him and scattering the pieces of his body throughout Egypt. When Isis collected all the fragments, Anubis helped the goddess during the God's funeral ritual, and Anubis transformed Osiris's body into the first mummy. Anubis became the deity who guided the spirit of the Dead to the underworld, where the deceased would be judged by a court presided over by Anubis. The God would place the heart of the deceased on the scales of Osiris, and a feather of truth would be put on the other side. If the heart was heavier than the feather, this indicated that the organ was full of evil. It was given to Ammit, a demonic creature known as a heart eater. If the feather was heavier than the light heart of the soul of the just and good, Anubis would lead the deceased to Osiris to enter the afterlife.

During the period of Greek domination over Egypt, the god Anubis was associated with Hermes. Hermes in Greek mythology is also the deity who led souls to the underworld. This association gave rise to a deity called Hermanubis, who became popular during the period of Roman rule. Anubis is one of the most popular deities in Egyptian mythology. He is the god responsible for leading souls to the afterlife.

Sobek is a famous Egyptian god with a crocodile head. He is a deity of the Nile, the important river that flows through Egypt and fertilizes its lands. The God is one of the oldest Egyptian deities and has been worshipped for more than 4,000 years. The Pharaohs deeply admired this deity, as they believed that the crocodile god could protect them from evil spells. Crocodiles are very common animals in Egypt. The species Crocodilus niloticus, also known as the Nile crocodile, is one of the largest species of these reptiles and also one of the most dangerous. But Sobek, although powerful, was a kind God. Therefore, the ancient Egyptians prayed to the god to calm the Aquatic beasts.

Some myths attribute the rise of the Nile to Sobek. The river would have emerged from the sweat of the crocodile god because he was closely connected to the sacred River. Sobek was considered a god of fertility. The Nile's flood cycles were responsible for fertilizing the entire flood plain, making these surrounding lands extremely fertile. Sobek was worshipped in many regions of ancient Egypt, but mostly in Fayum and Kom Ombo. The Sobek cult was very present because of the large number of crocodiles in those areas. When one of these crocodiles died, the animal could be mummified in the Crocodilopolis temple. There were several mummies of these animals. A mummified crocodile could also be buried along with the mummies of pharaohs and other figures of nobility. The Egyptians believed that crocodile mummies protected them even after death.

Before this, the city of Kom Ombo worshipped the god Horus, Sobek's brother, but after a fight, the crocodile god expelled Horus and started to rule the place by himself. But with Horus gone, the region was plagued by many evils. Sobek reconciled with Horus, and both started to take care of the region and share the worship of men in the Kom Ombo temple. Today, we can visit the temple and its museum, where there are dozens of mummified crocodiles. In some places in Egypt, there were large pools where crocodiles were bred and tamed. These animals were revered as the embodiment of Sobek. Some of these were almost docile, making it possible for the Egyptians to adorn them with jewelry and ornaments. In this way, they felt closer to Sobek, the crocodile god.

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Bastet is the Cat Goddess of Egyptian mythology. She is represented as a being with a woman's body and a cat's head. Cats were honored animals and considered sacred by the Egyptians. Cats played an important role in the Egyptian world, as the animals protected people's food from rodent infestations, and cats also scared off dangerous poisonous snakes. Bastet is a goddess connected with the sun. Therefore, during the day, the goddess followed Ra on his journeys across the sky in his solar boat. During the night, the goddess took the form of a full cat, and she protected the world against the terrible serpent Apep. The goddess was worshipped throughout Egypt. To harm any cat was a terrible sacrilege. The perpetrator of such violence could be sentenced to death. Cats were considered family members. According to some accounts, when a house was burned down, cats would enter the blazing dwelling to help the residents escape. Sometimes these cats seemed to die in the flames, but thanks to the goddess Bastet, they would come back to life, reinforcing the popular saying of the cat's nine lives. Being sacred animals, cats were mummified in Egypt. There are cemeteries dedicated to these mummies. According to some versions, the Goddess Bastet is linked to Sekhmet, the Lioness goddess. The latter was violent and bloodthirsty but was pacified, becoming a meek, milk-drinking cat goddess. In other versions, Bastet and Sekhmet are sisters and daughters of Ra. Even with the end of the Egyptian god cult, cats continue to look down on men, hoping to have their divinity recognized once again.

Set was one of the most famous gods in Egyptian mythology. He was the son of the Gods Geb and Nut, the sky and the earth, and the brother of Osiris, Isis, and Nephthys. Like most Egyptian gods, Set was represented as a man with an animal head, but to this day, it is debated which animal this was. Some say he was a hybrid beast, a mixture of pig and donkey, or an aardvark, an animal similar to an anteater, but there is no consensus. The god personified violence and destruction and was also considered a trickster. Set was the lord of the deserts and infertile lands, while his brother Osiris was worshipped as the god of fertility. The god Set was married to Nephthys, and according to some traditions, because Set was the god of infertility, he would have had no descendants. Set was very jealous of his brother and devised a plan to take his throne away from him. The god of destruction murdered his brother and stole his throne, but Osiris had had a descendant named Horus, the Falcon God. The latter sought to avenge his father's death and take the throne from the usurper. The clash between Horus and Set is one of the most famous stories in Egyptian mythology. For a long time, the gods fought among themselves, but Horus emerged victorious. The gods recognized the vast power of Set, which was not to be wasted. Therefore, Set was to sail together with Ra, the Sun God, and protect him from the terrible serpent Apep. When Apep appeared to attack Ra's boat, Set was poised to defend the world from the eternal night.

According to some scholars, Set was considered one of the main gods of Upper Egypt at the early formation of the Egyptian civilization, as opposed to Horus, worshipped in Lower Egypt. But after the unification of Egypt, Set, associated with the northern Semitic invaders, lost much of his prestige. The victory of Horus's followers over the Hyksos, who worshipped Set, symbolized the victory of the forces that represent order against the agents of chaos and destruction. Set was considered responsible for the destruction of crops, hunger and thirst, scorching heat, and great droughts. The day that represented the birth of Set was seen as a day of bad luck, where new projects and ventures were to be avoided. Although defeated and rejected, the great power and influence of Set within the ancient Egyptian religion is undeniable.

Isis is the most important goddess in Egyptian mythology. She personified the faithful wife and loving mother. The goddess was the daughter of Geb and Nut, being married to Osiris. Her cult spread beyond Egypt, coming to have a strong influence in the Greco-Roman world. Because she was recognized as a faithful wife, she was sometimes identified with the goddess Hera in Greece and Juno in Rome. The goddess mastered magic and was able to deceive the god Ra, extracting from the solar god the secrets about the laws that govern life and death. According to some traditions, she was the most powerful among the goddesses.

After the murder of her husband committed by Set, Isis wandered Egypt in search of Osiris's body. According to some traditions, the goddess gave rise to the Nile floods from the tears shed by losing her husband. After finding Osiris's body, she resurrected him and united with him, giving birth to the god Horus. Osiris left to reign in the Underworld, and after being left without her husband, the goddess decided to devote herself to protecting her son Horus, using magic. Isis was responsible for rebuilding Horus's eye, which was lost during a battle against Set. The Egyptian goddess was the protector of the dead, and with her blessings, she restored the souls of the departed to the underworld. Several temples were erected in honor of the goddess throughout Egypt, where she was venerated. Cleopatra, the Queen of Egypt, taking advantage of the goddess's reputation, proclaimed herself the new Isis. But as it turned out, the Goddess Isis was not very cooperative with Cleopatra. Cleopatra lost not only her throne but also ended the Ptolemaic Dynasty's rule over Egypt. Despite the decline of the cult of the Egyptian gods, the Goddess Isis continues to be a source of inspiration and admiration for all lovers of mythology.

Thoth is the god of wisdom in Egyptian mythology. The God is represented as an anthropomorphic figure with the head of an Ibis, a bird of the Pelican family. However, he was also represented as a baboon, another animal consecrated to the god. Thoth is the son of the goddess Hathor. She disguised as the Goddess Isis had sexual relations with Osiris. From this union, Thoth was born, but other versions say that he is the son of Set. Thoth was attributed with the invention of writing. It was he who taught the Egyptians to make the most diverse records with hieroglyphics. The God was also responsible for writing laws and teaching mortals the science of accounting. Thoth is the god protector of scribes. Thoth was so revered in Egypt that he was considered the god of wisdom, astronomy, magic, and medicine, among other sciences of which he is the patron. The god Thoth was considered a kind, just, and conciliatory figure, but he was also implacable before the enemies of truth. The God had as a partner Ma'at, goddess of justice and truth. From this relationship was born Seshat, a daughter who was also goddess of wisdom. In other versions, Seshat is Thoth's wife. Often, Thoth was represented with a disc on his head. This disc represents the moon, making him a moon god. The ancient Egyptians used the cycles of the moon to measure time. Therefore, the God is linked to time, and he was responsible for the creation of the Egyptian calendars. The main city to worship the god of wisdom was Hermopolis, also known as Hermopolis. During the Greek domination in Egypt, this city had the largest and best library in ancient Egypt. The millennial Egyptian god of wisdom continues to illuminate the path of those who seek knowledge and search for truth.

One of ancient Egypt's most feared animals, the scorpion, bears multiple symbolic layers within this age-old culture. For this reason, it comes as no surprise that there is a deity who is intimately connected to this creature. Serket is this goddess's name. One of Egypt's oldest goddesses, she was depicted as a hybrid between a woman and a scorpion. Serket is a deity associated with healing, magic, and poison. Egyptians prayed and offered sacrifices to ask Serket to protect them from snake and scorpion attacks. But as well as acting as a protector, the goddess could also inflict punishment on sinners by sending her venomous beasts to attack them. It was Serket's job to shelter the souls of deceased pharaohs and guide them to the underworld. She would also help in the pharaoh's rebirth process, breathing life into their new mortal bodies. Her role as protector also applied to the living world. Serket was summoned to protect workers, especially those facing danger, such as doctors dealing with poisons and toxins or workers handling dangerous animals. Her association with poisons and ability to heal those stung by scorpions or snakes gave her a strong association with medicine. Serket amulets were common and used for protection against poisonous bites and stings. Often, she was cast in spells and incantations to cure or protect against poisoning. Serket paintings were regularly found in the mummification halls and noble sarcophagi. She may not be as well known as other Egyptian deities such as Isis or Osiris, but her presence and importance are clearly evident in the context of ancient Egypt. Serket, as guardian and protector, had a vital position in defending both the living and the dead.

Osiris is one of the Egyptian Pantheon's most revered deities. He represents the essence of order, morality, and civilization. He is a God who triumphed over death and became the lord of the afterlife. Today's video takes us through the history of this famous God and his riveting story. Osiris is usually considered to be the son of Geb, the god of the earth, and Nut, the goddess of the sky. This bloodline positions Osiris in an extraordinarily powerful and prestigious role within the Divine hierarchy. His siblings include Isis, Set, and Nephthys. Since the dawn of time, Osiris has been associated with order, righteousness, and benevolence. The duality between Osiris and Set reflects the Egyptian belief in the need for balancing opposing forces. Osiris was viewed as a perpetuator of harmony and stability in the universe. He is often described as a righteous and wise king who ruled Egypt before becoming the god of the underworld. The god instructed the Egyptians in agriculture, laws, and the worship of the Gods, laying the groundwork for Egyptian society and culture. These principles were key to Egypt's transformation from a nomadic and chaotic civilization into an advanced and organized one.

Although they were siblings, Osiris and Isis became husband and wife, a common occurrence among the gods of different mythologies, symbolizing the union of complementary forces. Their marriage was viewed as an ideal model, characterized by deep love, mutual support, and unshakable loyalty. The relationship between Osiris and Isis extends beyond its mythological narrative, assuming a deep religious and spiritual dimension. They are often seen as embodiments of marital loyalty, eternal love, and renewal. In particular, the Cult of Isis emphasized these aspects, leading to her being one of the most worshipped goddesses in ancient Egypt.

The story of Osiris's death and resurrection is among Egyptian mythology's most significant and powerful myths, embodying themes of treachery, revenge, love, and the eternal struggle between Order and Chaos. Set profoundly envied Osiris's position and power as the ruler of Egypt. Fueled by jealousy and ambition, Set masterminded a scheme to wipe out Osiris. He organized a feast and presented a beautiful coffin, vowing to give it to the one who would fit inside it perfectly. As Osiris, without suspecting a thing, entered the coffin, Set and his conspirators promptly closed it and dumped the sarcophagus in the night river. Osiris's wife and sister, Isis, sorrowful and determined, undertook a long journey to find her husband's body. Her quest took her to many parts of Egypt, and eventually, she found him. Upon finding out that Osiris's body had been recovered, Set flew into a rage and dismembered Osiris's corpse, strewing its parts all over Egypt. Together with her sister Nephthys, Isis began another journey, this time to collect the fragments of Osiris's body. Together with Anubis, the god of mummification, they managed to assemble and embalm the body, creating the first mummy. Using magic and spells, Isis succeeded in reviving Osiris briefly. During this brief period, Osiris and Isis conceived their son, Horus. After his conception, Osiris was sent back to the underworld, where he became king and supreme judge, playing a vital role in judging souls.

Upon his resurrection, Osiris symbolized hope for the afterlife, promising eternal renewal and revival for those deemed worthy. Isis not only had a vital role in resurrecting Osiris but also in protecting her son Horus, secretly raising him to shield him from Set's wrath. She is often depicted as the ideal mother and protector, a role model for Egyptian queens and mothers. As Du's ruler, Osiris oversaw keeping order and harmony in the Underworld. He was seen as a benevolent King who provided protection for righteous souls and ensured that they enjoyed the pleasures of the Du'at, otherwise known as the Reed Field. Under his rule, the underworld mirrored the living world, with fields to cultivate and rivers to navigate. However, before reaching this gift, the individual's soul was tried in the Hall of Ma'at. Osiris chaired the trial, supported by 42 Divine judges who represented the 42 nomes, or districts, of Egypt. The departed soul had to declare their innocence from a series of sins and have their heart weighed on the scales of Ma'at against the penalty of truth and justice. If the heart were light, the soul would be deemed righteous and worthy of entering Aaru, the Egyptian Paradise. If not, the heart was tossed to Ammit, a dark creature who would consume it.

While mummification was a crucial part of Egyptian funerary rituals, it was strongly influenced by the Osiris myths. The mummification process was seen as an emulation of Osiris's condition, hoping that like him, the deceased could be brought back to life and experience the afterlife again. Egyptian funerary rituals and texts like the Book of the Dead are littered with Osiris references. They include formulas and incantations meant to help the dead overcome obstacles and reach the presence of Osiris. Osiris, as the god of the afterlife, profoundly shaped not only religious practices but also the ancient Egyptians' culture and worldview. His role as judge and guardian of the Dead fundamentally molded Egyptian notions of morality, justice, and eternity. Osiris is often portrayed in artistic representations as a mummy, representing his death and resurrection, bearing the symbols of royal power, the staff and the scourge, and often with green or black skin, symbolizing fertility and regeneration. Osiris's death and resurrection are inextricably tied to Egypt's agricultural cycle, especially the Nile's annual floods, bringing fertility and life to the land. This death and renewal cycle in nature bolstered the belief in Osiris's regenerative capacity. Osiris worship had its roots in Egypt's pre-dynastic era, becoming increasingly prominent in the ancient empire and retaining its importance until the Greco-Roman period. Osiris was worshipped throughout Egypt, with cult sites in places such as Abydos and Busiris, where grand temples were built in his honor. Osiris's cult entailed a number of rituals and practices. The ceremonies included offerings, prayers, and songs to honor him, looking for his blessings and protection in the afterlife. The Khoiak Festival was among the most important religious celebrations dedicated to Osiris, staged annually in Abydos. This feast praised Osiris's death and resurrection. Dramatic processions and rituals during the festival reenacted Isis's search for Osiris's body, her mourning, and the God's ultimate resurrection. These celebrations were not only acts of worship but also an expression of the belief in eternal life and cyclical renewal.

The relationship between Osiris and the ancient Egyptian monarchy was key to the Egyptian understanding of government and royalty. Osiris was viewed as the prototype of the ideal Pharaoh. This association between the God and kingship led the Pharaohs to strive for the qualities of Osiris, including wisdom, fairness, and the ability to maintain order and harmony. Association with Osiris was essential for the Pharaoh's legitimacy. It was thought that just as Osiris ruled Egypt on Earth and then in the Underworld, the Pharaoh was his proxy on Earth, ruling with Divine Authority. This was reinforced in coronation ceremonies and religious rituals, where the Pharaoh was frequently depicted making offerings to Osiris or being blessed by him. Upon death, the Pharaohs were identified directly with Osiris. This was such a strong belief that mummification rituals and funerary procedures were intended to transform the dead Pharaoh into the god Osiris himself. The Pharaoh's tomb was seen as his Osirion, a holy place where he was reborn as Osiris in the Underworld. The magical formulas and texts carved on the sarcophagi and pyramid walls often invoked Osiris, attempting to grant the dead Pharaoh the same resurrection and eternal life that Osiris had achieved. The Osiris myth also had an impact on the concept of dynastic continuity. Just as Osiris was followed by his son Horus, the Pharaoh was often seen as an embodiment of Horus on Earth, continuing the Divine bloodline. This succession cycle from the deceased Pharaoh Osiris to the reigning Pharaoh Horus epitomized the continuity and stability of the Egyptian State. Osiris, from his Divine roots to his crucial role as the god of the afterlife, represented different values and beliefs that were deeply rooted in Egyptian society. The god left his mark, molding ancient Egypt's spiritual, social, and political dimensions. This made him not just a mythological figure like many others, but a cornerstone that sustained and shone a light on the ancient Egyptian world.

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Hapi is the god of fertility in Egyptian mythology. The God is often portrayed differently: a man with hanging breasts and a sagging belly, often with green or blue skin. These attributes underline his association with fertility and abundance. He is also frequently seen holding offerings or symbols of prosperity and water plants. In all Egyptian religions, Hapi was adored, and his role was so significant that he was often worshipped above Ra, the Sun God. He was also referred to as the father of the Gods, and although he was represented as a male deity, he had an uncanny breastfeeding ability.

The Nile's annual flood was seen as a critically important event in ancient Egypt. This brought with it fertile and mineral-rich sediments, renewing the agricultural land and ensuring abundant harvests. Hapi was revered as the personification of this benign flood. Egyptians held festivals in his honor, expressing gratitude for the waters and the fertility they brought. Such celebrations also served to appease Hapi and ensure that he continued to bless Egypt with good floods. Hapi also played a symbolic role in uniting Upper and Lower Egypt. He was often described as Hapi, unifier of the two kingdoms. This is seen in his depictions showing him binding the Papyrus and the Lotus, symbols of Upper and Lower Egypt. The Nile was the wellspring of life for the ancient Egyptians, and Hapi, as the god of the Nile flood, became one of the most revered and crucial deities. By venerating Hapi, the Egyptians showed their gratitude, their longing for prosperity, and an inherent understanding of how vital the Nile waters were to support their magnificent civilization.

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Hathor is the goddess of fertility and beauty in Egyptian mythology. She is the daughter of Ra, the Sun God, making her one of the most important Egyptian deities. The goddess is depicted in Egyptian art in unusual ways. She is often portrayed as a sacred cow, but also as a crowned woman with horns and a solar disc between them. According to some versions, Hathor was seen as Horus's consort. The goddess was worshipped throughout most of the Egyptian world, so her roles as a deity could vary greatly. As stated earlier, Hathor was revered as the goddess of fertility. The Egyptians believed that the pharaohs, when they were born, were breastfed by the goddess, and this enhanced the ruler's divine nature. For this reason, pharaohs were often called children of Hathor. As some versions say the two sons of the Supreme God had disappeared in the beginning of the world, Hathor, also known as Ra's right eye, had the task of finding them. When she returned with the God's children, the deity noticed that the God had developed a new right eye. The bitter goddess wept, and men emerged from her tears. This is why she was also known as the universal mother. For having a maternal role, the goddess was invoked to aid in childbirth. Besides being involved with deliveries, the goddess was also associated with death. Hathor would welcome those who had just reached the underworld, providing the newcomers with food and drink. Being bound to the cow figure, the Papyrus is the plant consecrated to the goddess, as it was one of the favorite foods of the cows grazing on the Nile Riverbanks. The Dendera temple was the most important sanctuary devoted to the goddess. The sick went there in search of treatment, since Hathor was also a goddess tied to healing. The Goddess was also known as the beautiful one, and hence was seen as the deity of beauty and joy. The festivities in her honor were packed with merry dances. Due to her cheerfulness, Hathor was regarded as the goddess of dancing. Hathor's cult lost momentum as the Isis worship grew. Even in the latter's shadow, the cult of the cow goddess spread far beyond the Egyptian borders. Throughout the period of Greek and Roman domination over Egypt, and owing to religious syncretism, the Egyptian goddess of beauty came to be associated with Aphrodite by the Greeks and Venus by the Romans. This is why Hathor became one of the main deities of Egyptian mythology.

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Imhotep was a remarkable ancient Egyptian personality who excelled as a visionary architect, renowned physician, and wise Royal adviser. Born in Imhotep near Memphis, Imhotep exhibited a razor-sharp mind and an unquenchable curiosity as early as his youth. Imhotep's father was a highly respected architect, and he spotted his son's extraordinary talent early on and introduced him to the building trade. Imhotep's genius quickly attracted Pharaoh Djoser's attention, who recruited him to serve as his Royal adviser. Imhotep humbly accepted and soon distinguished himself not only as an architect but also as a doctor and priest. His legacy started to take shape in the limestones of the Saqqaran Acropolis, where he challenged traditions by designing the Pyramid of Djoser with steps and galleries, a majestic structure that stood out against the Horizon. Imhotep was also for his medical skills, and temple corridors echoed with tales of his miraculous cures. His bond with the healing deity Sekhmet lent a divine aura to his procedures. People started to revere him not just as a brilliant architect but as a being gifted with celestial wisdom. Imhotep's life was laced with mysteries and superstitions. It was said that he had the gift of interpreting dreams, a skill that the Pharaoh deeply prized. His medical and architectural writings were regarded as sacred texts, and his teachings were employed in many areas for the benefit of the Egyptian people. As time went by, Imhotep grew into a venerable character, and his deification was bound to happen. Following Imhotep's death, the Egyptian authorities raised him to the rank of a deity, serving as the god of wisdom and medicine. Temples were built in his honor, and future generations turned to him as an icon and a source of inspiration. Imhotep's name reverberates through the centuries as a byword for intelligence, creativity, and spirituality. His quest, filled with challenges, successes, and mysteries, still inspires those who look for the truth in studying and learning from the past.

Anhur was an Egyptian god of war and hunting, worshipped mainly during the Middle Kingdom. He was the leader of the Egyptian Army and the protector of the warriors. The Pharaohs and their armies often invoked him to protect and favor them in battle. Anhur was also seen as a god of survival, having powers to feed the people as he was the god of hunting. He was sometimes depicted as a strong man with a spear, but the best-known image of him is that of a man with a lion's head, representing strength and bravery. Anhur was also responsible for keeping his father, the Sun God Ra, safe. Anhur stood in front of Ra's solar barge, protecting him from the terrible serpent Apep. This is how he got the nickname "Slayer of enemies," which later came to be given to Set. Anhur was the God of War but was not always violent. His role was to make people creative. During festivals held to honor the lion god, battles and heroic acts were staged to honor him.

Taweret is one of the most fascinating goddesses in ancient Egyptian mythology. She is depicted as a female figure with a hippopotamus's head, lion's legs, and human breasts, a crocodile's tail – some of the most dangerous animals in Egyptian fauna. Despite this, Taweret was considered a goddess of protection and childbirth and was often called upon by women who were pregnant or wished to become mothers. The goddess Taweret was popular among ancient Egyptians, often represented with amulets and ornaments. Her image was considered a protective symbol against illness and death, especially during childbirth. She was also seen as a guardian of the afterlife, helping the deceased to overcome dangers in the world of the dead. According to some versions of Egyptian myths, Taweret was the wife of Set, the god of violence and chaos. While this association may initially seem strange, the ancient Egyptians believed that Taweret could tame Set's rage and use it to benefit those in need of protection. Besides being a protective goddess, Taweret was considered a deity associated with water. The hippopotamus, the animal on her head, was often associated with Egypt's rivers and lakes. In Egyptian mythology, waters were a site of power and mystery, where spirits and deities could be found. As a goddess connected to the waters, Taweret was seen as a guardian of these mysteries and protector of travelers navigating the rivers. Although the goddess Taweret was an extremely important figure in ancient Egyptian mythology, little is known about her origins. Some scholars believe that she may have originally been a goddess from the Nile Delta region, where the hippopotamus was a very common animal. Others indicate that Taweret may have been imported from other regions, possibly Nubia or Libya. Regardless of the exact origins, Taweret is one of the most fascinating goddesses in Egyptian mythology, and her image is still a symbol of protection and good luck.

In Egyptian mythology, Horus is the god of the sky. He embodies power, protection, and renewal. As the son of Isis, the goddess of magic, and Osiris, the god of the afterlife, Horus holds a main place in Egyptian mythology. He is often depicted as a man with a falcon's head, symbolizing his sovereignty over the sky. This crowned divine bird not only stands for celestial power and kingship but also plays a key role in maintaining order and justice in the universe. The Horus myth embraces themes of revenge, justice, and political power. By worshipping Horus, the ancient Egyptians voiced their longing for stability, order, and continuity, all crucial elements for a prosperous and stable society.

The God's birth is the outcome of one of the most dramatic and famous myths of ancient Egypt. The story of his rise begins with Osiris being murdered by his brother Set, who was jealous and ambitious. Set dismembered Osiris's body and scattered its parts throughout Egypt. In her relentless pursuit, Isis gathered the pieces of her husband's body and, using her magical powers, temporarily revived him. During this brief period of renewed life, Isis conceived Horus. He was born not only as a god but also as a symbol of hope and renewal for the Egyptian world. His very existence was seen as a triumph over death and chaos, as represented by Set, and a symbol that order and justice could be restored. Horus was conceived to fight Set, trying to avenge his father's death and restore order. This battle was more than a mere confrontation between two gods; it was the eternal struggle between Order and Chaos, good and evil, light and darkness. With his association with the sky, the Sun, and kingship, Horus represents order, stability, and legitimacy. By contrast, Set symbolizes the disruptive and volatile forces of the universe, the unexpected and the destructive. In many versions of this myth, the battle between them is lengthy and brutal, with each god losing and winning at various times. This narrative echoed the Egyptian understanding that the universe's balance is a dynamic phenomenon where Order and Chaos are in constant turmoil. One of the most iconic details of this struggle is when Horus loses one of his eyes, which is later recovered, representing the notion of renewal and healing. Following the conflict, this Eye of Horus was a powerful symbol of protection and health in ancient Egypt. The conflict ended in an unusual way when Set was offered a letter in which Horus poured his divine seed. This humiliation gave Horus a position of superiority over Set, who now had the seat of order inside him. With Horus's triumph, he was granted the right by the Divine Court to exercise the authority that previously belonged to his father.

As the incarnations of Horus, the Pharaohs were considered Egypt's legitimate rulers, meant to maintain order against the forces of chaos. Horus is heavily tied to the establishment of the unified Egyptian State, a process that merges two distinct regions, Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt, into a single political and cultural entity. Horus is traditionally affiliated with Upper Egypt, but his iconographic depiction after unification often features him wearing a double crown. This is a merger of the Upper Egyptian white crown and the Lower Egyptian red crown. The double crown not only symbolizes the political unification of both regions but also Horus's role as a unifier and a keeper of order and stability throughout Egypt. Horus's mythical feud with Set is also taken as an allegory for unification. In this context, Horus stands for the forces of order, legitimacy, and unification, whereas Set symbolizes the powers of chaos and disunity. Horus's eventual victory over Set is viewed as a metaphor for bridging internal divisions and establishing a unified State under Central leadership. Additionally, as the protector of the Pharaohs and the Kingdom, Horus became an even more meaningful deity following unification. The unified Egyptian pharaohs were often portrayed as living incarnations of Horus. This reinforced the idea that the Pharaoh was the legitimate ruler meant to uphold unity and Order throughout the kingdom, just as Horus had done. The reign of a Pharaoh as an incarnation of Horus was not only a political event but also an act of maintaining cosmic order.

Horus was venerated throughout Egypt, and his cult is one of the earliest in ancient Egyptian religious history. Horus worship permeated many aspects of Egyptian life, from the political sphere to everyday life, and was deeply ingrained in Egyptian culture and religion. The temples consecrated to Horus were worship sites and played an important role in local economic and political life. These temples' architecture was magnificent, with massive pillars, open courtyards, and sacred shrines. The walls were ornamented with reliefs and detailed engravings illustrating Horus-related myths, worship rituals, and everyday scenes. Horus's cult involved many rituals and festivals. Among the most important was the celebration of Horus's victory over Set, symbolizing the Triumph of order over chaos. At such festivals, Horus statues were taken in processions, and the worshippers offered sacrifices and prayers. Additional rituals included daily offerings, songs, and prayers, as well as purification and renewal rituals. Horus also had a role to perform in the Egyptians' daily lives. He was used as protection against danger, to cure illnesses, especially in children, and as a guardian at moments of passage, such as death.

Egyptian artistic representations of Horus express this deity's importance and complexity in the Egyptian Pantheon. Horus's iconography is encountered in a wide range of contexts, from grandiose sculptures and reliefs in temples to dainty paintings in tombs and everyday objects. The sculptures frequently depict Horus in a regal and imposing posture. Statues of Horus as a falcon or as a man with a falcon's head were common and frequently placed in temples as a symbol of protection and divine power. These sculptures range in size from small bronze figures to large stone statues. In temples dedicated to Horus, especially in Edfu, wall reliefs depict mythological scenes involving Horus, featuring his fight against Set, his association with the Pharaoh, and his role in maintaining cosmic order. These embossments are saturated with detail and symbolic narratives. Horus was often portrayed in the tombs as a protector of the dead. He is seen leading the deceased to the afterlife or providing protection against evil spirits. These images underline the belief in intercession and in Horus's protective role in the afterlife. The god also appeared on a range of artifacts, such as amulets, jewelry, and everyday objects. The Eye of Horus, in particular, a symbol of protection, health, and restoration, was a frequent image on amulets and paintings. As one of the most iconic deities in Egyptian mythology, Horus holds a prominent place in both the religion and culture of ancient Egypt. His art representations, from majestic sculptures in temples to delicate paintings in tombs, exemplify the reverence and importance attributed to him over millennia.

Apep, also known as Apophis, is a giant serpent in Egyptian mythology. This massive serpent is an agent of chaos and enemy of Ra, the solar deity. The serpent embodies evil and chaos. Apep lived in the Duat, the Egyptian underworld, a place where he hid to try to ambush the solar god as he made his way through the underworld at night. The giant serpent was capable of causing earthquakes while moving in the depths. When Ra was about to complete his journey through the underworld, he was always attacked by Apep. Apep's biggest wish was to destroy Ra's solar boat and throw the world into darkness. In some occasions, Apep managed to swallow Ra's boat but could not keep it in his belly. This period when the sun was swallowed by Apep was the origin of solar eclipses. Ra started to be aided by other deities in his daily struggle against the colossal serpent. The god Set stood beside the solar deity in his boat. He positioned himself at the bow, ready for the Serpent's unavoidable attack. When the creature emerged to strike them, Set maimed Apep with a spear. Whenever Apep had been wounded, the sky became red. Bastet, the cat-headed goddess, also helped Ra. Felines are known to hunt and scare serpents away. Considering his malevolent nature, Apep was rejected by the ancient Egyptians, and no temple was edified in his honor. Nevertheless, there are reports on the existence of some sects that worshipped the creature. These were seen as immoral and corrupt people. The Egyptians organized rituals and prayed for Ra's victory over Apep, and the birth of a new day meant that the Sun God had come out victorious once more. There was a priesthood book that contained the rituals and practices needed to combat Apep. A ritual intended to banish chaos was held annually. A depiction of Apep was burned during it, while the faithful prayed for another triumphant year of Ra. Some reports state that Ra defeated Apep and imprisoned the serpent, protecting the cosmic order, but others claim that the struggle between Ra and Apep will last forever.

Sekhmet is the goddess of vengeance in Egyptian mythology. She is represented as a woman with a lioness's head. The name Sekhmet means "the powerful one." According to some versions, she was the daughter of Ra, the Sun God, therefore she is also identified as a sun goddess. Ra begot Sekhmet to punish men who refused to obey the God's designs. The lioness goddess descended from Heaven to Earth and began to enforce Ra's vengeance on men. The goddess was ruthless with those who were unfaithful to Ra. Sekhmet spread terrible diseases and devoured Ra's enemies. However, the goddess took delight in bloodshed. The goddess's bloodlust was so great that Sekhmet began to guide her rage against the innocent. Ra became worried when he realized his daughter was out of control. To diminish her desire for blood, he devised a plan. Ra offered wine to the lioness goddess. She, thinking it was blood because of the color, drank the wine with pleasure. The drink calmed the goddess, and the Sun God took her back to Heaven. Sekhmet was also considered a warrior goddess and defender of Egypt. Egyptian soldiers believed that Sekhmet fought alongside them against Egypt's enemies. After bloody battles, the priests who accompanied the Army held ceremonies to thank the lioness goddess for her protection. These ceremonies also soothed the goddess and showed that more bloodshed was unnecessary. Sekhmet was also considered the pharaoh's protector. She was always at the ruler's side until the day of his death, when she escorted him to the entrance of the other world. When a hot wind blew, the Egyptians believed it to be the lioness goddess's breath, capable of breeding disease to punish her enemies. She could also stop any sickness. Therefore, the Egyptians begged Sekhmet to cure them. For this reason, the goddess also had the epithet "Lady of Life." The city of Memphis was the center of worship of the Goddess. On the last day of the year, a great festival was held in honor of the Goddess. This celebration was paired with a lot of wine, as they wished to please Sekhmet and avoid the wrath of the powerful goddess of vengeance.

Ra is the sun god in Egyptian mythology. This God is usually depicted as a being with a man's body and a head of a falcon. The sun disk is over his head. He had been, one day, the greatest of all gods, but time wore him down, and finding himself too old, he decided to relinquish the power and go to the skies. This God is one of the most revered figures in Egyptian mythology. As the sun god, one of his duties was to drive away the darkness, and to accomplish his work, the god crossed the skies on his sunboat, lighting the whole world. But when the twilight came, he and his vessel plunged into the sea waters towards the underworld. There he would have to sail through the dark world and cross the 12 gates, which would be the 12 regions of the Netherworld. Ra took an hour to go through each gate. Osiris was in one of them, the lord of the underworld, whom Ra always visited to pay his respects. But before leaving the underworld's darkness, the God was attacked by the terrible snake Apep. This force of chaos tried to destroy the God's vessel, and each day the serpent seemed closer to accomplishing her desire. Apep once managed to swallow the sunboat, putting an end to the sunlight in the morning, but the serpent failed to hold the god in her stomach and regurgitated him. The event was marked as a solar eclipse. However, destroying Ra's boat became more difficult since Set, the god of destruction, after losing the dispute of the supreme throne for Horus, had been condemned to navigate with Ra across the skies. He helped the sun god, defending his vessel against the terrible serpent, defeating it several times, making Ra's underworld journey safer.

The god Ra was a figure worshipped throughout Egypt, but this God was especially adored in the city of Heliopolis. The God's prestige was so vast that other traditions of Egyptian religions of antiquity merged the god's depiction along with the greatest figures of their own pantheons. For instance, the figures of the supreme gods Amun and Atum were also known as Amun-Ra and Atum-Ra. The God's name was used by many pharaohs. Ramesses is a well-known example. His name means "son of Ra" or "the son of the sun," and so the pharaoh would strengthen his divinity before his subjects. Ramesses II, also known as Ramesses the Great, was one of the most remarkable pharaohs in ancient Egyptian history. He ruled during Egypt's 19th Dynasty for around 66 years. His tenure is often considered one of the longest and most successful in Egyptian history. Ramesses was born in 1303 BC during the reign of his father, Pharaoh Seti I. Ramesses was the third son of Seti I and Queen Tuya. His childhood was distinguished by his Royal Rank and by growing up in a political setting. As a member of royalty, he was given a broad education, which included instruction in literature, religion, military strategies, and administration. Ramesses' father was a military active pharaoh, and he took the young prince on army campaigns to introduce the

Heir to the practical side of government and military leadership, these events shaped Ramsay's future military and political approach. At 14, Ramsay II already bore the title of Crown Prince and was named his father's co-regent, a common procedure in ancient Egypt to ensure a smooth transition of power.

When CI the died around 1290 BC, Ramsay II rose to the throne as Pharaoh of Egypt. His rise to the throne was fairly uneventful due to his co-regency and the solid education he had received. Ramsay's reign started around the age of 25. He chose to establish his capital in Pi Ramsay before moving it to Thebes later in his reign.

Ramsay II was best known for his construction and renovation efforts throughout Egypt. He supervised the building of several temples, monuments, and statues, including the famous Temple of Luxor and the Temple of Carnac. He was also in charge of the Abu Simbel temples, one of ancient Egypt's most iconic monuments.

During the second year of his reign, Ramsay II crushed an invasion of Sheran pirate groups, also known as the Sea Peoples. They formed a confederation of mercenary warriors and pirates at the end of the Bronze Age and raided some of the most powerful kingdoms of that time. Ramsay's II's successful campaigns against the Sea Peoples helped bring stability to the Eastern Mediterranean region during part of his reign.

One of ancient Egypt's most famous and documented conflicts is the Battle of Kadesh, which took place around 1274 BC. The Levant region, which includes parts of Syria, Israel, and Palestine, was strategically important for its trade routes and natural resources. Egyptians and Hittites had conflicting interests in this region.

Before the Battle of Kadesh, Ramsay II and Hatus III, King of the Hittite Empire, had signed a non-aggression treaty, but relations soured when Ramsay II accused the Hittites of supporting rebels in the region. Ramsay II headed a military campaign to retake control of the Levant and expel the rebels and their Hittite supporters.

The Pharaoh was counting on his larger and better-trained forces, but the Hittites surprised the Egyptians with an initially successful strategy. They made a covert attack on Ramsay's camp as the Egyptian forces were approaching the city of Kadesh. The Hittites' rapid deployment took the Egyptians by storm, encircling them from different directions. The Egyptian Pharaoh was isolated temporarily from the rest of his troops and, with the help of his personal guard, fought for his life until reinforcements arrived.

Ramsay II reported the battle personally, narrating a one-on-one duel with the Hittite prince. Ramsay II succeeded in defeating his initial attackers and fled the camp to rejoin his main troops. The Hittites, believing that their enemies had been utterly defeated, stopped to loot the Egyptian camp and made themselves sitting ducks for Ramsay's II's counterattack. The Egyptians charged full force into the Hittites' unruly ranks, and they had no choice but to flee.

During the ensuing chase, the heavier Hittite chariots were easily overtaken and swept aside by the lighter and faster Egyptian chariots. The battle ended in a stalemate, with heavy casualties on both sides. Rather than pursue further hostilities, the Egyptians and Hittites chose to negotiate a peace agreement, which became known as the Treaty of Kadesh, one of the earliest historical evidences of an international peace treaty. The agreement established a defensive alliance between Egypt and the Hittites against external threats. The treaty also provided a stable period in relations between Egypt and the Hittites, scoring an early example of international diplomacy.

Ramsay II also led several military campaigns in the south, in the Nubian region, to protect Egypt's borders and control the region's resources. Nubia was a resource-rich region with gold and precious stones, and its management was vital for ancient Egypt. Ramsay II followed a policy of integrating members of the conquered Nubian groups into his army. This not only bolstered the Egyptian troops but also contributed to assimilation and the maintenance of regional stability.

Ramsay II was renowned for promoting a powerful and divine image of himself. Sculptures and texts carved as stone reliefs by earlier pharaohs could easily be erased, and so their images and words were twisted by their successors. Ramsay therefore insisted that his sculptures be etched deeply into the stone, which not only made them less susceptible to later changes but also made them more striking when exposed to sunlight.

Ramsay had a meaningful family life with several wives and several sons and daughters. Nefertari was one of Ramsay's most adored and influential wives. She had a leading role in his life and monuments, such as the Abu Simbel Temple. Be inscriptions and representations dedicated to her. Meritamen was one of Ramsay's second daughters, but she also became one of his wives. Marrying daughters was a common practice among Egyptian royalty to maintain royal lineages.

The Sed festivals were renewal rituals where the Pharaoh attended several rites and ceremonies to prove his vitality, strength, and ability to continue to rule successfully. During the Sed festivals, Ramsay II participated in religious ceremonies to honor the Egyptian gods. These ceremonies were carried out in temples and included offerings and prayers. This ritual symbolized the continuity of royal authority and the guarantee of stability and prosperity for Egypt.

Ramsay's II ruled for around 66 years, making him one of the longest-lived pharaohs in Egyptian history. He died around 1213 BC and was buried in the Valley of the Kings, but his body has been moved several times over the centuries. His rule produced a lasting legacy, as much in terms of architectural achievements as political influence. Ramsay's II's successor was his 13th son, named Merneptah. The power transition seemed to have been fairly smooth, although there were disputes between some of his sons over the succession. Ramsay's the second's death signaled the end of one of Egyptian history's most enduring and powerful reigns. His legacy also spans the Ramesside Dynasty, to which he belonged, and the lasting influence he exerted on Egyptian politics and culture.

Hatshepsut was among ancient Egypt's most outstanding figures, being one of the few women to rule as Pharaoh. Her story is fascinating and steeped in political intrigue and remarkable achievements. Hatshepsut was born around 1508 BC. She was the daughter of Pharaoh Thutmose I and Queen Ahmose. Her birth name meant "the noblest of noble women." It became clear from an early age that Hatshepsut was no average child. Her eyes were piercing, charged with purpose, as if she already knew that she was destined for great things.

As she grew up, Hatshepsut revealed outstanding wit and intelligence, learning from the wise men and advisers around the Royal Court. She was a keen observer, eagerly absorbing every teaching. Her father, Thutmose I, first spotted her potential and educated her in the art of ruling and leadership, setting her up to one day take on responsibilities that challenged the conventions of her time.

When her half-brother and husband, Thutmose II, took the throne, Hatshepsut became Queen, but she was not merely satisfied with filling an ornamental role. She soon became an influential adviser and a political influence behind the scenes, steering Thutmose II in his decisions and shaping the fate of the Kingdom. The untimely death of Thutmose II nevertheless cast a shadow over Egypt. Thutmose III, his son with a concubine, was still too young to rule by himself.

At a pivotal moment, Hatshepsut stepped into the role of regent, vowing to protect the throne and the Egyptian people. But Hatshepsut harbored even loftier ambitions. Knowing her ability and determined to ensure the stability of Egypt, she took a bold decision. She declared herself Pharaoh, adopting the full title of Maatkare, meaning "Truth of Ra is the Soul of Ra." Wearing the insignia and costumes traditionally assigned to male pharaohs, she defied gender norms and boldly proclaimed her authority.

Egypt blossomed as never before under her reign. Hatshepsut pushed for peace and prosperity, rebuilding ancient temples and boosting trade with distant nations. She also ordered expeditions along the Red Sea and to Nubia, enlarging Egypt's domains and securing her position as an outstanding leader. Her greatest legacy, however, was to be written in stone. Hatshepsut commissioned magnificent works, including the splendid Temple of Deir el-Bahari, testifying to the grandeur of her reign and her devotion to the Egyptian gods. Each block of stone, each hieroglyph, contained the story of an exceptional woman who defied convention and left an everlasting mark on the history of her people.

But fate is so often cruel to those who defy established norms. Hatshepsut's death is surrounded by mystery, and there is no definitive conclusion about the exact circumstances of her passing. Some historians argue that she may have died of natural causes, such as illness, but there are also theories suggesting that her death may have been the outcome of conspiracies and murder. Following Hatshepsut's death, her stepson, Thutmose III, rose to the throne and tried to erase her memory by purging her name from numerous monuments and inscriptions. But Hatshepsut's legacy could not be so easily erased. Centuries later, Egyptologists went on to revive her story and acknowledge her greatness. The woman who became Pharaoh, Hatshepsut, is now celebrated as one of the most distinguished rulers of ancient Egypt, a visionary who challenged the expectations of her time and left a lasting legacy for future generations. This is how the story of Hatshepsut, the great Maatkare, lives on through the centuries, constantly reminding us of the power of determination, courage, and vision to change the course of history.

Akhenaten, also known as Amenhotep IV, was a pharaoh from ancient Egypt's 18th Dynasty, reigning from approximately 1353 to 1334 BC. He was known in Egyptian history for his eccentric personality and tumultuous role, often referred to in antiquity as "the Mad Pharaoh." Akhenaten was the son of Pharaoh Amenhotep III and Queen Tiye, a member of the royal family. He was brought up in the lavish palaces and temples of ancient Egypt in a privileged and powerful milieu.

As Crown Prince, Akhenaten was taught religion, literature, art, history, mathematics, as well as military and administrative skills. This education prepared the prince for his future role as Pharaoh. Once Akhenaten reached a certain age, he married Nefertiti, a woman who had become one of ancient Egypt's most famous Queens. She gave birth to many of Akhenaten's daughters and one son who would go on to become the famous Pharaoh Tutankhamun. The couple were keen for their family's image to be eternalized in paintings and reliefs, with which certainly went against the customs of Egyptian royalty at the time.

Akhenaten's father, the Pharaoh Amenhotep III, reigned during a long and mostly peaceful period, featuring diplomatic relations with neighboring nations, architectural developments, and financial stability. Following the death of his father, Akhenaten assumed the Egyptian throne in 1353 BC. In his fifth year as Pharaoh, Akhenaten officially switched his birth name from Amenhotep IV to the one that made him famous, Akhenaten, meaning "he who is effective to Aton." Akhenaten may have been introduced to the idea of a monotheistic religion during his childhood and adolescence, i.e., the belief in a single Creator God.

Not long after becoming Pharaoh, Akhenaten took up the cult of the god Aton, said to be an aspect of the Sun God, higher than the ancient god Ra of the Egyptian Pantheon. Nonetheless, Akhenaten's zeal for the cult of Aton grew stronger, and he progressively sidelined other deities, exalting Aton as the only supreme god. Egypt was under the strong sway of the Temple of Amun priesthood during Akhenaten's reign, who had amassed a great deal of power and wealth over time. The Temple of Amun at Karnak in the city of Thebes, Egypt's capital at the time, was the Egyptian people's most powerful religious center, with extensive territories and resources under their control. Amun's priestly class had both political and religious power and were extremely dissatisfied with the religious reforms that Akhenaten had planned.

Akhenaten was directly defying Amun's powerful priestly hierarchy by promoting the cult of the god of Aton and rejecting Egypt's traditional polytheistic religion and its other deities. He took steps to reduce the priests' power and influence, which included closing temples devoted to traditional gods and diverting religious resources and tributes to the cult of Aton. One of Akhenaten's most radical measures was to set up a new capital called Akhetaten. This change removed the center of royal power from the jurisdiction of the Amun priests in Thebes and solidified the new religious order, marginalizing the Amun priests and dismissing traditional religious practices.

Altered artistic depictions, language, and even aspects of the Egyptian population's daily life. Amun's priesthood tried to hide the statues and sacred texts from the palace guards sent to crack down on them. In response to the relentless religious persecution ordered by the Pharaoh, Akhenaten and Nefertiti declared themselves to be deities on Earth and appointed new priests to the temples or simply forced those who worshiped Amun to serve the new monotheistic religion. Both Akhenaten and Nefertiti insisted on having their names worshiped and prayed to. Akhenaten also ignored much of Egypt's political issues and reportedly paid little heed to anything that went on outside the walls of his palace. Egypt's economy started to falter, crime and corruption rose, and the population feared that their Pharaoh was either insane or possessed by an evil spirit.

Akhenaten ruled for around 17 years. He probably passed away around the year 1334 BC, but the exact date is unclear. Akhenaten's exact date of death is unknown and is regarded as one of the many enigmas of Egyptian history. There are many theories about Akhenaten's death. Some suggest that he may have been deposed or even murdered, perhaps because of widespread discontent among the population with his radical religious policies. Egypt went through a transitional and unstable period after Akhenaten's death. His immediate successors sought to repair the damage caused by the radical religious and political reforms he had put in place. Polytheistic religious practices gradually returned to Egypt. The cult of the god Aton was discontinued. The construction of the city of Akhetaten was phased out, and the power and influence of the Amun priests in Thebes was restored. This concludes the story of Akhenaten, the Pharaoh who dreamed of becoming a god.

Ancient Egypt was the setting for some of antiquity's most momentous dynastic quarrels. An uncertain atmosphere enveloped the Royal Throne, deep in this pyramid and mystical Kingdom. The Pharaoh Akhenaten, renowned for his unique cult of the god Aton, left a controversial legacy to his son Tutankhamun, who took over the throne after Akhenaten's death as a 9-year-old child. He inherited a broken Kingdom and a nation searching for balance.

Upon Tutankhamun's rise to the throne, his first duty was to rebuild the traditional religious order. His advisers, among them the shrewd General Horemheb and the seasoned Vizier Ay, tirelessly labored to undo Akhenaten's religious reforms. Temples once abandoned were reopened, and the traditional deities were reinstated in the day-to-day life of the Egyptian people.

Tutankhamun faced political challenges and court intrigue in the Royal Palace. His half-sister, the gorgeous Princess Ankhesenamun, became his wife, following an ancient Egyptian tradition aimed at solidifying the Royal bloodline. But challenges were rife. Plotters and rivals sought to undermine the young Pharaoh's authority as he grappled to establish his position as leader.

As Tutankhamun handled the complex halls of power, his very existence was overshadowed by a mystery. His father's early death and subsequent ascension to the throne at such an early age heightened speculation about his fate. Tutankhamun allegedly suffered from poor health, and the young Pharaoh was said to be a cursed man, with rumors spreading through the palace.

Despite the obstacles, Tutankhamun endeavored to stabilize the kingdom. Trade prospered under his leadership, the borders were upheld, and the people found relief from the afflictions of the past. The young Pharaoh proved wise beyond his age, guiding Egypt through an age of rebirth and reconstruction. Counselors, generals, and priests, each craving influence over the young Pharaoh, became players in an intriguing game designed to shape Egypt's destiny. General Horemheb, Tutankhamun's loyal adviser, became a central figure in this contest. His military acumen was as sharp as a sword's blade, and his ambition drove him to cement power amid all the uncertainty surrounding the succession.

Tutankhamun's marriage to Ankhesenamun, while intended to bolster the Royal lineage, came with a host of problems. Rumors of marital strife and intrigue in the harem were circulating among the Egyptian nobility, threatening the young Pharaoh's stability. In the meantime, other members of the court, such as the wise Vizier Ay, were lurking in the shadows, forging alliances and plotting to secure his own ascension.

Although Tutankhamun's rule was notable for its outstanding achievements, it was tragically brief. The young Pharaoh, who took the throne at nine, saw his tenure come to a premature end at eighteen. His mystery-shrouded death still intrigues archaeologists and historians to this day. Several theories have been offered to explain Tutankhamun's death. Some scholars have suggested that he died of disease, with malaria being a strong possibility, giving the conducive conditions of his time. Other theories involve him having an accident or a leg wound that may have gotten infected. More sensationalist claims include the murder hypothesis. Palace intrigues and power struggles are alleged to have led to a plot to remove the young Pharaoh from the throne, but the lack of conclusive evidence renders this theory merely a matter of speculation and debate among scholars.

Following Tutankhamun's premature death, the General Horemheb arose as a leading figure in the halls of power. With no direct heir, Horemheb decided to ascend to the throne, becoming the new Egyptian Pharaoh. Horemheb's successor, the Vizier Ay, assumed the throne, repeating his predecessor's policies. Ay was succeeded by a young military man called Ramesses I, who started the 19th Dynasty, cementing the order in Egypt.

Tutankhamun's legacy was immortalized by his magnificent tomb and its treasures. Howard Carter's discovery of the tomb in 1922 triggered a global fascination with ancient Egypt, propelling Tutankhamun to posthumous fame. The mystery of his death only adds to the mystery surrounding the young Pharaoh's life, turning him into an iconic figure in Egyptian history.

Cleopatra was born in 69 BC in the city of Alexandria, founded by Alexander the Great, situated in the Nile Delta. Cleopatra was an important Queen of ancient Egypt, and her name continues to this day. She is one of the best-known women in the history of mankind. Throughout her life, she stood as a strategist, determined, very intelligent, cunning, and owner of a gigantic fortune. Once, the Greek philosopher Plutarch wrote the following about her: "The contact with her presence, if we lived with her, was irresistible." The Egyptian ruler fascinated many people in her time. To this day, she continues to enchant many. Her life trajectory is widely studied, researched, and debated in order to understand her greatness.

There are some interesting facts. In a temple dedicated to the goddess Venus, at the request of the Roman leader Julius Caesar, who was Cleopatra's lover, a golden statue of the Egyptian queen was built. There are records that this monument was seen and venerated at the site until at least the 2nd century AD. Curiously, Cleopatra was even venerated as a true goddess, more precisely as a new Goddess Isis, one of the most important deities of ancient Egypt. She was also identified as Aphrodite, the Greek goddess whose attributes are similar to those of Isis.

Cleopatra also had refined intelligence. She received a remarkable education together with the other children of royalty. She was educated in the palace where she lived. Cleopatra was able to speak seven or eight languages, which greatly facilitated her agreements and political strategems. She was reportedly the first person in her family to speak the Egyptian language without interpreters. In addition, she succeeded in studying philosophy and rhetoric from an early age. She learned oratory, which she knew how to use in a very intelligent way, speaking with the correct posture, appropriate gestures, and a soft voice. With regard to her vast knowledge, it should be remembered that Cleopatra lived in Alexandria, a cultural center in antiquity, with the famous Library of Alexandria, full of many literary works and an unparalleled structure. These local circumstances were very important and influential in the cultural formation of the Egyptian ruler.

Her achievements made her the lover of two of the most famous Roman generals of her time: Julius Caesar and Mark Antony. As is often the case with historical figures, much information about the life of this remarkable woman has been distorted over time. Today, we can find the image of Cleopatra stamped on the most varied objects, and her name is known by many people, although not by everyone what she was like in reality. In fact, these physical representations of the figure of the queen usually consist of one of the many distorted points in her story.

Regarding the queen's look, Plutarch wrote the following words: "She wasn't so unique that there were no comparison or that we couldn't look at her without being touched." We can also get an idea of how she was physically through various coins that were created and circulated at the time when Cleopatra lived. These objects are the most reliable sources for us to imagine what she looked like. There are also some busts sculpted over time that apparently represent the queen. When we see the coins, we notice the protrusion of the nose and chin. In fact, the philosopher Pascal wrote: "If Cleopatra's nose had been smaller, the whole face of the world would have been different." Taking into account this comic phrase and noticing the features that the powerful Egyptian woman has in the coins, we can conclude that perhaps she was not as extraordinarily beautiful as the cinema showed us. But one thing is certain: her conquests and way of being surpass any Hollywood representation.

Let's see now why Cleopatra belonged to the Ptolemaic dynasty, which was in power for three long centuries. Their rule was marked by many marriages and murders among the family members. This imposing dynasty was born after the death of the mighty Alexander the Great, King of Macedonia. With his death, his empire was divided among his generals. An ancestor of Cleopatra, Ptolemy I Soter, was among them, who initiated the Ptolemaic Dynasty after starting to rule the magnificent city of Alexandria, an unparalleled cultural center of ancient Egypt. In view of this genealogical tree, it is important to remember that the powerful Cleopatra referred to in this video is Cleopatra VII. Six other Cleopatras preceded her in her family lineage.

In Alexandria, the queen lived in a luxurious palace full of wealthiness and beautiful ornaments. The palace was huge and spacious, with more than 100 rooms and a stunning external landscape. There were breathtaking gardens decorated with beautiful statues and fountains. This fantastic palace was constantly enlarged with successive generations of Ptolemaic figures. The site became the most luxurious palace in the Mediterranean. Cleopatra, daughter of Ptolemy XII, grew up in this reality. She had two sisters, Berenice IV and Arsinoe IV, and two brothers, Ptolemy XIII and Ptolemy XIV. When her mother died, Berenice IV settled in power, but her period as ruler was short, and the young woman was killed by her own father. It is important to underline again that the lineage of the Ptolemies had as one of its main characteristics the murders. Later, Arsinoe IV was exiled by Julius Caesar and later executed by Mark Antony at the behest of his own sister Cleopatra. The fate of Ptolemy XIV was no different.

Cleopatra began to rule Egypt at the age of 17 after the death of her father. According to tradition, she married his brother, Ptolemy XIII, who at the time was only 13 years old. Some time after Cleopatra became the Queen of Egypt, her brother and husband, Ptolemy XIII, began to take an interest in ruling the country without the intervention of his sister. Pothinus, Achillas, and Theodotus, three important advisers to the young king, agreed with this idea to persuade the young man to break with Cleopatra and remove her from power.

The queen, during her government, wanted to maintain political ties with Italy. In a showcase of her strategic skills, her goal was to strengthen friendship with the Romans, who could be important allies in the event of a civil war in Egypt. Her main ally would be General Pompey, leader of one of the most traditional Roman families. These diplomatic maneuvers led to Cleopatra being accused of treason for deceiving her brother. At the age of 21, the young ruler was forced to leave Alexandria and went into exile in Syria, where she assembled an army. The young Egyptian king and his three advisers decided to go in search of the queen to prevent her return to Alexandria at all costs. However, during their search, they learned of the unexpected news: Pompey, who rivaled the great Julius Caesar, was on his way to Egyptian lands. He thought he would be welcomed by the Pharaoh himself, since he had been a great friend of his father. Pompey the Great was a very skilled general throughout his life. He conquered countless nations in Africa, Asia, and Europe.

After suffering a defeat in Greece, the fearful Pompey fled to Egypt in search of refuge. After a disastrous defeat in Greece against his enemy Julius Caesar, a conflict divided the Roman Empire between Pompey and Julius Caesar. This conflict became known as Caesar's Civil War. Upon learning that Pompey intended to disembark in the country, the Egyptian partisans reflected. Helping the old acquaintance Pompey was a risk because it could be interpreted as a declaration of war on Julius Caesar, who commanded a very powerful war machine. Moreover, Ptolemy and his allies believed that Pompey could go help Cleopatra regain her place in royalty and trouble had to be avoided. But Pompey had been a great friend of the father of the couple who ruled Egypt. Therefore, if they did not help him, he could break ties with the country, making Egypt an enemy of Rome. Theodotus and the two other counselors, Achillas and Pothinus, reflected on the matter. It was a difficult decision, and the consequences could be risky, but eventually, as the three counselors struggled to find the solution, Theodotus, with a smile, looked at his companions and said, "The dead do not bite." The choice had been made to break up with Pompey and establish an alliance with Julius Caesar.

As Pompey approached Alexandria, he felt he would be welcomed by the Egyptians, but there was already a trap set up against the Roman, pretending that they would welcome him amicably. But as soon as Pompey arrived on Egyptian soil, he was brutally beheaded. A few days later, Julius Caesar arrived in Alexandria to seek out his adversary. The Egyptians showed him Pompey's head, and Caesar was shocked by the violence. Despite being his enemy, Caesar respected Pompey. On Caesar's orders, Ptolemy's adviser was executed. Caesar, with his army, went to the Royal Palace, where he settled and informed himself that he would like to see the king and the queen. It is important to remember that Ptolemy XIII was prepared to face his sister's army when he was informed of Julius Caesar's arrival. He headed for his palace, and Cleopatra, how could she return if she had abandoned Alexandria and if her brother and faithful guardians wanted her away from the city? She was in danger, and she knew that she could not be seen.

Then the queen had a rather unusual idea. In order to meet Julius Caesar, she created a plan and, to put it into practice, had the help of a Sicilian supplier named Apollodorus. They entered a boat where the queen was hidden, sailing the Nile River for 8 days. When they approached Alexandria, Cleopatra, still with the help of Apollodorus, entered a papyrus sack. The queen's accomplice tied the big sack with a leather rope and carefully entered the palace, leaving the sack in Julius Caesar's room. We don't know exactly what the Roman's reaction was when he found Cleopatra, but the Egyptian woman conquered him immediately. With Caesar by his side, everything would be easier. The opportunity to get rid of his brother and rule according to his interests was finally within her reach.

With Pompey's assassination, Julius Caesar had a very negative opinion. Ptolemy Cleopatra used the death of his former ally to her advantage. The queen convinced Caesar that she was the right person for the throne of Egypt. The Queen of Egypt and Julius Caesar entered a loving relationship. Caesar's decision to support Cleopatra angered Ptolemy, who declared war on Julius Caesar. The Roman general was at a numerical disadvantage and took a defensive position. This event became known as the Siege of Alexandria. Caesar and his men fought hard to defend their position, waiting for reinforcements. When his allies arrived, Caesar defeated Ptolemy's Army at the Battle of the Nile. The young Pharaoh drowned in the river. With Julius Caesar, the queen had a son named Ptolemy Caesar, historically and popularly known as Caesarion. Caesar's support was crucial to the consolidation of Cleopatra's power in Egypt. The Roman general returned to Rome, and Cleopatra reigned over Egypt. Everything seemed to go according to plan, but a huge turnaround would eventually happen.

Cleopatra had consolidated her power on the throne of Egypt, and under her administration, Egypt prospered, and the city of Alexandria experienced a cultural boom financed by the queen. Cleopatra organized an expedition to Rome. In the city, she stayed at Julius Caesar's mansion. The Egyptian queen took her son Caesarion on the voyage. The fruit of her union with the Roman general, Julius Caesar, was at the height of his power, and as the leader of his nation, made several political and social reforms. He also organized a triumph in his own honor. The parade of Caesar had the presence of Arsinoe, Cleopatra's sister, displayed as a prisoner, a symbol of Rome's victory over the Egyptians. Caesar introduced the city to the Egyptian queen, but at the time, Rome did not yet have the glory that brought it into history. It was not yet comparable to Alexandria, the capital of Ptolemaic Egypt. Caesar's relationship with the foreigner was frowned upon by the Roman elite. There were a lot of rumors and lies about the couple. Caesar was named dictator in perpetuity and had unrivaled power. The Roman senators were left without much of their influence and feared losing their remaining power, so they conspired against Caesar's life. In 44 BC, Julius Caesar was murdered by Roman politicians in a Senate session. Chaos engulfed Rome. General Mark Antony, Caesar's right-hand man, pursued the conspirators. In a public square, he read Caesar's will, where his son with Cleopatra was not among the heirs. In his will, Caesar indicated his nephew Octavian as his successor. Rome was no longer a safe place for the Egyptian queen, and she returned to her kingdom. Meanwhile, Octavian and Mark Antony led their armies in the persecution of the men who betrayed Caesar.

There was a remarkable encounter between Cleopatra and Mark Antony in the year 41. He sent a messenger to Alexandria. Through this man, he called the queen for a meeting in Tarsus, a city located in present-day Turkey. The Egyptian queen arrived at the agreed place in a dazzling boat. The ship had a stern made of gold, its oars were made of silver, and the sails were purple. The navigation was accompanied by music; lyre and flute were played. The queen, beautiful and ornate, was freshened up by her servants, and the boat had a wonderful smell. The entire population left her duties to follow Cleopatra's triumphal arrival. Mark Antony fell in love with her immediately. Still in 41 BC, Cleopatra invited the mighty Mark Antony to visit Alexandria. However, after spending some time in the Egyptian city and getting involved with the queen, the Roman left, and the two continued to exchange correspondence. The couple only met again after a long time, but before that reunion, something happened. In 40 BC, Cleopatra gave birth to twins, recognized by Mark Antony himself as their heirs. The children were called Helios, of Greek origin, which means "son," and Selene, which means "moon." During the absence of the Roman, where he was separated from the Egyptian queen, he even resumed his relationship with his wife Fulvia in Rome, although he could not forget Cleopatra. Fulvia eventually died, which may have made things easier and made it possible for Mark Antony to finally join Cleopatra once again. But Octavian, Julius Caesar's nephew, did not want that to happen. He suggested that his sister Octavia should marry the Roman general. That happened, and they had three kids in 2 years. Mark Antony, after Caesar's death, became Consul General. Later, his power was divided between him, Octavian, and Lepidus, a political association known as the Second Triumvirate. Lepidus distanced himself from political life, which led to a dispute between Octavian and Mark Antony. The power in Rome was divided between the two. Caesar's nephew ruled the West, while Mark Antony managed the Eastern provinces. Although he was married and even against Octavian's will, the romance between Mark Antony and Cleopatra was not over. They met again in the city of Antioch, where they made their union official. The romance between the two was thriving, and they both seemed in love. In Alexandria, the couple had many parties and banquets where they displayed their sovereignty. However, the Roman was forced to leave Egypt after an attack by the Parthians in Syria and Asia Minor. The inhabitants of the Parthian Empire in ancient Persia. Octavian reproved this union and was frustrated by the relationship between the Roman and the mighty Egyptian. In part, this was due to his sister Octavia, who ended up rejected by Mark Antony, and also for fear of losing part of the Roman Empire to the couple. A new civil war broke out in Rome between the supporters of Mark Antony and the defenders of Octavian. The Battle of Actium happened in 31 BC in a region in Greece, where both faced each other. Cleopatra accompanied her husband as he headed towards the long battle, but when the defeat of Mark Antony was already visible, she returned to Egypt, quietly announcing a false triumph. Octavian achieved a decisive victory in the naval battle of Actium, and this victory marked the end of the Roman Republic and the beginning of the Imperial period. However, his opponents eventually discovered the truth. While Cleopatra tried to maintain her position and conquer allies, she did everything she could so that together with Mark Antony, they could rise again, but he, after defeat, was no longer the same person. Octavian said he would forgive Cleopatra if she killed her lover. Ignoring the proposal, the Egyptian queen continued to try to motivate her husband, while she tried to discover, together with her personal physician, a painless poison. The queen was preparing for the worst.

The end of Mark Antony was tragic. While Cleopatra tried to flee from Octavian and his army, Mark Antony, who had already arrived in Alexandria, the Roman soldier received the news that his lover had died. Desperate, he took his sword and wounded his own chest. However, the strike was not accurate, and Mark Antony did not die immediately. While he was bleeding and suffering from the pain caused by the blow, he was informed that Cleopatra was still alive and managed to find the Egyptian monarch. His last breath happened in the arms of his lover. When he reached his other half, Mark Antony had already lost a lot of blood, and there was nothing that could save his life. Before dying, however, in the arms of his beloved Cleopatra, he asked her to collaborate with his opponent Octavian in order to save herself. After this request, the great Roman Mark Antony died. Caesarion, Caesar's heir, sometime later, was also killed by Octavian. At that time, at funerals, it was common for women to hurt themselves with punches and scratches, accompanied by cries of pain and despair. That's what Cleopatra did in front of her late lover. Her injuries caused an infection, and she received treatment on the orders of Octavian. However, the queen, shaken by the death of her beloved Mark Antony and afraid of the future, tried to resist the treatment so that she could die. But Octavian terrorized her with threats to her children. Cleopatra gave in and, out of love for the heirs, accepted the proper treatment until she recovered her health.

Cleopatra also had an impactful end. It was one of the events that eternalized her in history. The queen failed to escape her rival Octavian, who had arrested her in Alexandria, but she resisted and would not surrender to the enemy, going through the humiliation of being a prisoner and hostage of Rome. That would be too embarrassing for a woman like her. As for her sons, Caesarion was murdered, as was said, and the others were taken to Rome to be raised by Octavia. Cleopatra was constantly washed over by order of Octavian, since she had attempted suicide twice after the death of Mark Antony. But Octavian's plans didn't go as expected. The queen, always cunning, put an end to her own life before that. She sent a letter to Octavian in which she asked to be buried next to her late husband. In relation to her death, some sources say that she was voluntarily bitten by a serpent and died from the poison. Other sources and scholars affirm that Cleopatra took some poison. With these uncertainties, her end is quite controversial. Some sources say Cleopatra's personal physician had a great deal of knowledge about poisons. Besides, the queen was always a strategist and effective person. Most likely, she prepared her death in advance. Finally, even though the most famous version is the one that states that Cleopatra died while being deliberately bitten by a serpent, it's more likely she ingested some lethal poison, which did not cause major discomfort at the time of her death. She was found on top of a couch, dressed in beautiful garments. People claimed that she had a serene expression. She died nine days after the death of her lover. Her funeral was solemn and elegant, worthy of an Egyptian queen. Her request to be buried next to Mark Antony was respected. After the death of the powerful monarch, Egypt became a Roman province. It was the end of the hegemony of the Ptolemaic Dynasty in Egypt.

Cleopatra's story is fascinating. Many of her female ancestors were important Egyptian rulers along with their husbands. Curiously, Egyptian women at that time had more freedom than women from other civilizations. Cleopatra did not play a secondary role in this lineage of women rulers and was a renowned figure. Her life journey was particularly hectic and impressive in many ways. Firstly, the Ptolemaic lineage, which is impressive due to the number of murders among the family members themselves. This habit indeed was inherited by Cleopatra, but regardless of these murders, the Ptolemaic government was very important to Egypt, and Cleopatra had major responsibilities and had to make important decisions throughout her life. As ruler of Egypt, she had admirers and rivals. She was skillful, practical, and extremely influential. She was a rare, special, quite determined woman. She always had strategies to achieve all her goals. Cleopatra marveled everyone because of her great knowledge and also because of her differentiated intelligence. The profile of the Egyptian queen, with all these qualities, allowed her to conquer two of the most legendary characters in our history: the powerful Julius Caesar and Mark Antony. And as time went by, Cleopatra's figure was often misrepresented, and the Egyptian woman was seen with prejudice at times. It seems that her entire life path and conquests boil down to having seduced these two Romans, but this view of the queen's life is simplistic, since she has had great political achievements. In any case, the legendary Egyptian queen has become a source of inspiration for some of the greatest artists in history, among them the painter Michelangelo and William Shakespeare. In their hands, the ruler became an illustrious piece of art. As we learn more about her story, we realize this is not by chance that Cleopatra has fascinated so many people in her time and continues to captivate so many others in this day and age.

Egyptian mythology is full of exotic deities that have an appearance that mixes human features with animals. Besides these anthropomorphic divine figures, this mythology is also full of incredible creatures that further enrich the mythological universe created by this ancient culture. Today, we will meet some of the most impressive creatures in Egyptian mythology.

In ancient Egypt, the sun was considered the Supreme Deity. It was represented by Ra, a god with the body of a man and the head of a falcon. But deep in the underworld, there was a gigantic serpent named Apep, which was looking for an opportunity to attack the solar bark of the god Ra. In doing so, it could destroy the rising of a new day in the world of the mortals. The ancient Egyptian myths say that Apep sprang from the umbilical cord of Ra when he gave life to himself in the universe's vastness. It was the main adversary of Ra, the god of sun and light. Sometimes Apep is described as a giant serpent, the top of whose head is covered with a hard, smooth stone called silicate. Every single day, Ra traveled through the heavens in a solar bark, illuminating the world. But at the end of the day, the Falcon God sailed towards the Egyptian underworld, Duat. Apep, trapped in Duat since the beginning of time, was already looking for a way to attack Ra's bark. Both deities engaged in epic combat that caused storms and earthquakes in the world of humans. Apep faced other gods that accompanied Ra in his solar bark. The main opponent was the god Seth, who at the bow of the bark was always ready to strike Apep with a spear. The giant serpent managed to swallow Ra's bark a few times but was unable to keep it in his stomach for long, which gave rise to solar eclipses. Apep lived in the underworld and was therefore sometimes considered a devourer of souls. Thus, the dead also needed protection from it. Sometimes funerals included spells to ward off the serpent. Egyptian priests organized rituals to curse Apep and ban its evil presence from the world. They believed that this helped the god Ra to complete his sky voyage.

The demonic monster Ammit was also a deeply feared creature by the ancient Egyptians, being known as the "devourer of the dead." His body combined different animals: lion's front paws, hippopotamus' hind paws, and a crocodile's head topped with a lion's mane. Ammit was a funerary deity that lived near the scales of justice in the Hall of Two Truths in Duat, the Egyptian underworld. The god Anubis weighed the hearts of all deceased people to decide who deserved to go on to paradise or to be punished. The heart was placed on one side of the scale; on the other side was the feather of Ma'at, the goddess of Truth, to counterbalance the organ's weight. If the heart was lighter than the feather, the soul of the deceased could head for Osiris and enter Aaru, the Egyptian paradise. But if the heart was heavy due to sins, it was considered impure. Ammit would devour the organ, and the judged person would not be allowed to continue their existence. After Ammit swallowed the heart, the deceased soul would be restless forever. This was considered "dying a second time." Due to its cruel and animalistic character, Ammit was not entitled to temples or worship services, as it symbolized everything that the Egyptians feared. It threatened to imprison them in eternal suffering if they did not live an honest and kind life. Ammit represented the fairness of the afterlife; everyone, rich or poor, good or bad, would be judged equally at the end of their lives.

Not all mythological creatures had a grotesque or supernatural appearance. Some took on simple forms but also limiting their powers. Bennu is one of the oldest deities in Egypt, being related to creation and rebirth. It is the original inspiration for the phoenix legends that have developed in various cultures. Usually depicted as a huge gray heron wearing a Pharaoh's crown, Bennu, like the god Ra, was a self-created being with an important role in the world's establishment. An ancient myth says that Bennu flew over the waters of Nun, the primordial ocean that existed before creation, landing on a rock and uttering a call that determined the nature of creation. Bennu was considered immortal, able to renew itself periodically. The same reasoning was applied to the sun that rose every day in the sky. It was also a symbol of rebirth, associated with Osiris. It was often one of the forms taken by the god of the underworld to visit the mortal realm. Part of the first creatures to appear in the world, along with Atum and Ra, Bennu was worshiped, with its cult center in Heliopolis. It was depicted in ancient paintings and funerary amulets as a symbol of rebirth.

Beyond the Egyptian borders lived a wild and frightening creature: the Serpopard. It was a monster with the body and head of a lion or leopard and a long neck resembling the body of a serpent. The Serpopard is also in Mesopotamian myths, where it is represented as a lioness with an exceptionally long neck. In ancient Egypt, Serpopards symbolized agents of chaos. They were often depicted in pairs in paintings and high reliefs, hunting other animals or with their necks entwined. Serpopards played an important role in the religious concepts of Upper and Lower Egypt. They were probably animals associated with protection and royalty. The image of this bizarre creature was used on household utensils of the Egyptian nobility and pharaohs. Another hybrid creature from Egyptian mythology is the Griffin.

Although it is also part of the myths of other peoples of Greece and Mesopotamia, it has unique traits in Egyptian traditions. With a doglike body and a falcon's head, the Egyptian Griffin assumed various shapes and sizes. Some depictions had wings, a leopard-like body, and a human head emerging on its back.

In other myths, the Griffin represented a servant of Horus, being the embodiment of the god's power on Earth, responsible for carrying out divine justice. Like the serpopard, the Griffin also had protective functions and could ward off the action of demons and other evil creatures. The Griffin seems to have been elevated to the status of heraldic animal of the Pharaoh and appeared regularly in official documents.

The statues of the sphinxes are iconic symbols of Egyptian architecture. The most famous is the Great Sphinx of Giza. It was once believed that these mystical creatures were real, with a lion's body, a human head, and sometimes hawk's wings. The myth of the sphinxes reached ancient Egypt, where the creatures were depicted with a woman's head, a lion's hips, and bird's wings. They were considered treacherous and merciless, killing those who could not answer the riddle.

The deadly version of a sphinx appears in the myth and drama of Oedipus in Greek mythology. To the Egyptians, the Sphinx was benevolent but had a fierce strength and personality, like the malevolent Greek version. Both were considered guardians of temple entrances.

In the most famous myth of the sphinxes, the goddess Hera summoned the Sphinx that lived near the Nile River in Upper Egypt. The monster headed for Thebes, Greece, where it asked everyone who crossed its path the most famous riddle in history: "What animal walks in the morning on four legs, in the afternoon on two, and at night on three?" It strangled and devoured anyone who couldn't answer until a legendary king named Oedipus solved the riddle. "It is man," for he crawls on all fours when he is a baby, then walks on two feet when he is grown up, and in the end uses a cane in old age. The second riddle was made: "There are two sisters, one gives birth to another, and the latter gives birth to the former. Who are the two sisters?" Oedipus answered, "Day and night." Defeated, the Sphinx threw itself off the high rock and died into the abyss.

We don't know for sure how many monsters and fantastic creatures were part of religious beliefs in ancient Egypt. Many stories have been lost in the sands of time or have not been fully deciphered, but the legacy of Egyptian culture and mythology still fascinates people all over the world.

Three things immediately spring to mind when we think of ancient Egypt: pyramids, pharaohs, and mummies. For millennia, the Egyptian civilization and its mummies have enthralled mankind. But why and how did they mummify people? We will answer this and other questions in detail in today's video.

Death in Egyptian civilization was not seen as the end of existence but as a transition to a new way of life. This deep-seated belief in the afterlife influenced many aspects of Egyptian culture, particularly the practices related to preparing for death. Death was as crucial a stage of existence for the Egyptians as life itself. They believed that how they prepared for death determined their afterlife experience.

Preparing for death was a detailed and careful process that began long before a person passed away. The Egyptians not only concentrated on living a righteous life to secure a favorable place in the afterlife but also spent time and resources preparing their burials. This included acquiring funerary items, ordering sarcophagi, and building tombs. The funerary items were carefully chosen as they would be used in the afterlife. They ranged from personal objects to treasured items such as jewelry and amulets. The tombs, which were often more elaborate than the houses themselves, were seen as the eternal dwelling place and were built with great care and detail.

One's morality and actions during life were considered of the utmost importance, as it was believed that these would be judged in the afterlife. The Book of the Dead, a guide to the afterlife, provided formulas and instructions that the Egyptians followed to make sure they had a safe transition and a good afterlife.

The belief in life after death and mummification rituals has its foundation in the myth of the god Osiris. He was the first mummy, and his myth gave the mythological and religious foundation for all the other mummies to come. However, when the death of the person was announced, the body was taken to the so-called IET, or embalming house. This was a sacred place where mummification rituals were performed.

One of the most fascinating and iconic aspects of ancient Egyptian civilization, reflecting the belief in the afterlife and the need to preserve the body for eternity. The Egyptians thought that it was essential for them to preserve the physical body if they wanted to achieve life after death. They viewed the body as the dwelling place of the soul and the life force, which regularly returned to it. Preserving the body was crucial for the continued existence of the soul after death.

The process of mummification was intricate and elaborate, having developed over millennia. The first mummification methods used natural dehydration in the desert, and there is evidence that they date back to before 3,500 BC. With time, the Egyptians improved their embalming techniques for even better preservation. We will now dissect this process of mummification in detail.

The first real stage in mummification was to cleanse the body with water from the River Nile. This was considered sacred and purifying water. Next, the internal organs were removed. The brain was pulled out through the nostrils with special hooks. The abdominal organs—stomach, intestines, lungs, and liver—were taken out through an incision on the left side of the body. The heart, considered to be the seat of intelligence and emotion, was usually left in the body.

After the removal of the organs, the body was covered and filled with a natural salt called natron, intended to dehydrate and preserve the body. This process lasted around 40 days. Once the organs were removed, they were treated separately, dehydrated with natron, and wrapped. They were put in canopic jars to be buried with the dead person.

Once dehydrated, the body was cleaned and wrapped in hundreds of meters of linen strips. While it was being bandaged, ointments and resins were applied to help preserve it. Amulets and objects of religious significance were frequently placed between the bandages. Following the bandaging, final rites were performed to ready the deceased for the afterlife. The practitioners behind the mummification were highly specialized, many of whom were also priests, and carried out rites during the process. A death mask, often an idyllic representation of the deceased, was then placed over the deceased's face.

The mummified body was then transported to one or more sarcophagi, lavishly decorated with texts and images. Eventually, the sarcophagus was laid in the sealed tomb. One of the last steps before the deceased's final resting place was the opening of the mouth ceremony, an essential funerary ritual performed to reinstate the sensory and functional capabilities of the deceased in the afterlife. The ceremony was key to making sure that the deceased could breathe, eat, see, and move in the afterlife. A series of rituals and incantations were performed during this ceremony by a priest, often a son of the deceased. He would use special instruments to touch the mummy's or statue's mouth, symbolizing the restoration of the ability to speak and eat. Offerings of food and goods were placed in the tomb for use in the afterlife.

The ancient Egyptian tombs were intricate constructions filled with meaning, designed to be the eternal dwelling place of the dead, especially the pharaohs and nobles. They were sophisticated constructions with elaborate artwork and were built long before the person's death. Nobles were granted grand funerals, full of honors and rituals, usually only 70 days after their death, as this was the time necessary for the entire mummification process to take place. Once the body was finally buried, would the spirit have access to the afterlife.

Tombs were often built on the West Bank of the Nile, facing the living cities, as the West was associated with the underworld. On the inside, many tombs had chambers and corridors adorned with hieroglyphics and scenes from the life of the deceased and religious texts. The tomb walls often displayed paintings and bas-reliefs depicting the deceased taking part in a range of activities, as well as scenes portraying life in the afterlife. These also included texts and magical formulas to help with the journey after death.

The Egyptians thought that the dead would need material objects in the afterlife. This included furniture, jewelry, food, clothing, and household items. These objects were often of immense value to the pharaohs and nobles. Tiny figures called ushabtis were inserted into the tombs. It was believed that they would act as servants in the afterlife, performing physical tasks for the deceased. Amulets, statuettes of gods, and magical texts were added to protect the deceased from dangers in the netherworld. Some dead were interred with versions of the Book of the Dead, a set of spells that guided and protected the soul in the afterlife.

As soon as the body and possessions were inside, the tomb was sealed. The final burial rites were carried out to ensure safe passage to the afterlife.

The Egyptians thought that the human being was comprised of several parts: the body, the Ka (which can be translated as life force), the Ba (the personality), the Name, the Shadow, and the Akh (the immortal form). Death was viewed as a temporary transition in which these distinct parts separated. Mummification was vital, as it was believed that the Ka returned to the body after death, meaning that preserving the body was essential for the Ka's survival following death. It was believed that the Ba and Ka would reunite to form the Akh. To do so, the deceased had to set off on a hazardous journey to the afterlife, facing challenges and monsters.

A key element of the afterlife belief was the trial before Osiris, the god of the underworld. First, however, the heart of the deceased was to be weighed against the feather of Ma'at's truth. If their heart was light, they could continue their existence in the afterlife. If it was heavy, they would be devoured by the demon Ammit. If they were tried successfully, the dead arrived at the Field of Reeds, a peaceful and abundant haven like Egypt but without suffering or sickness.

The living took an active role in worshiping the dead, making offerings and prayers to support the spirits of their loved ones. Unlike what many think, the Egyptians did not believe in reincarnation and the return of the spirit to the mummified body. Egyptian culture focused on preserving the body through mummification to help the soul continue to live in the afterlife. This continued afterlife was more a form of spiritual immortality than reincarnation in the sense of being born again into a new body on Earth. The concept of reincarnation as a cycle of birth, death, and rebirth in different physical forms was not part of Egyptian religious cosmology.

Mummification in ancient Egypt was not just a simple funerary practice but a crucial element of the Egyptian belief in an afterlife, reflecting a profound devotion to the soul's immortality. The Egyptians expressed their quest for eternity through mummification, ensuring that the dead were honored, protected, and made ready for eternal existence.

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