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Foreign [Music] lovers of Sophia, today we are taking a fascinating journey into the nails of the past, stepping back even further in time, journeying to the ancient heartland of Italy, long before the rise of the Roman Empire. Join us as we delve into the mystical world of the Etruscans, a civilization that predates Rome and greatly influenced later Roman culture. Vibrant religion filled with a Pantheon of gods and goddesses, intricate rituals, and stunning art that offers a captivating glimpse into their beliefs and lifestyle. Also, the various italic tribes that share the Italian Peninsula with the Etruscans, their unique cultures, and their often overlooked contributions to the history of Italy.
But hold on to your togas, because that's not all. As we weave through the rich tapestry of pre-Roman Italy, we will also set the stage for the epic story of Rome's legendary foundation. From the tale of Romulus and Remus to the religious practices that shaped the Roman Empire, we will tease apart the threads of history that link these ancient cultures to Rome's powerful legacy. Whether you're a history aficionado or just a fan of epic tales from the past, I'm going to guarantee you a journey full of intriguing discoveries. Grab a comfy seat, hit the like button, and make sure you're subscribed for our grand expedition. Let's unravel the mysteries of ancient Italy.
Human presence in Italy dates back to the Paleolithic period, more than 20,000 years ago. Yes, you've heard that right, humans were in Italy, hunter-gatherers, twenty thousand years ago. This era's inhabitants are mainly known from archaeological evidence, including artifacts and cave paintings they left behind. In the Bronze Age, the urban field and Villanovan cultures were prevalent in the north and central parts of Italy. These cultures were known for their distinctive pottery and burial practices. The Etruscans, who lived primarily in the region now known as Tuscany, emerged around the 8th and 9th century BCE. They had a significant impact on the early Roman civilization and were eventually absorbed by the Romans. There were also various italic tribes, including the Latins, Sabines, and Samnites, who lived in the Italian Peninsula from around the second millennium BCE. The Latins were the tribe from which the Romans emerged, starting from the 8th Century BCE. The Greeks established colonies in southern Italy and Sicily, an area that was often referred to as Magna Græcia, or Greater Greece. The city of Rome was founded in the 8th Century BCE, and over the next few centuries, the Romans gradually expanded to control the entire Peninsula and eventually much of the known world.
In Italy, this period is typically dated from around 6,000 BCE. But let's go back to the beginning. The Neolithic Revolution of Italy began around 6,000 BCE. This is the time when people living in Italy introduced farming into the region. This included the cultivation of wheat and barley, as well as the domestication of animals like sheep, goat, pigs, and cattle. With the development of farming, people began to live in permanent settlements rather than leading a nomadic lifestyle. These settlements became progressively larger over time, evolving into villages and towns. The Neolithic Age saw the invention of pottery in Italy, with various distinct regional styles. Pottery vessels were used for cooking and storage, and a variety of other purposes. In some parts of Italy, particularly Sardinia and Sicily, large stone structures known as megaliths were constructed during the late Neolithic period. These include the Nuraghi of Sardinia, which are tower-like structures made of stacked stones. Trade networks began to emerge during this period. For example, obsidian from the islands of Sardinia and Lipari was traded across the Mediterranean for its use in making tools. This period in Italy saw the development of complex religious practices, often associated with the worship of a great mother goddess. This is reflected in numerous figurines and other artifacts from this period. There were also elaborate burial practices, with the dead often buried in collective tombs along with pottery.
Religion. The Neolithic era in Italy saw the development of other technologies, such as weaving and the production of sophisticated technology. [Music] [Applause]
Copper Age societies showed a strong focus on ancestor veneration, likely believing in some form of afterlife. This is evidenced by the elaborate burial practices and funerary structures of the period. For example, the Remedello culture in Northern Italy built distinctive collective burial sites. Many archaeologists propose that these Copper Age societies worshipped deities associated with nature, fertility, and agriculture, reflecting the importance of these elements in the daily lives of the Italians. This is often inferred from the figurines and other artifacts found by archaeologists, many of which depict what seemed to be a goddess, possibly associated with fertility and the Earth.
Foreign societies built large stone structures or megaliths that appeared to have religious significance. In some cases, these structures show alignments with astronomical phenomena, suggesting a possible focus on the sky or sky worship, or a form of proto-astrology. It's also suggested that the Copper Age societies of ancient Italy practiced a form of shamanism. It might have venerated certain animals. This is often inferred from artifacts like animal figurines or rock paintings, as well as from the remains of animals found in archaeological sites. Like their predecessors, the Bronze Age often displayed complex burial rituals, which reflected belief in an afterlife, along with veneration of ancestors. The Northern parts of Italy, for instance, the Terramere cultures built characteristic mounds for the dead. The presence of grave goods, such as weapons, jewelry, and pottery, may suggest beliefs in the deceased needing these items in the afterlife, similar to what we see in the ancient Egyptians. [Music]
In Sardinia, the Nuragic civilization (from 1800 to 200 BCE) constructed Nuraghi stone towers, as I mentioned, that may have had religious or ceremonial functions. The construction of dolmens and menhirs (large single standing stones) continued in parts of Italy, suggesting a tradition of building large megalithic structures for religious or ceremonial purposes, similar to Stonehenge. Sacred objects, such as figurines, amulets, and ceremonial axes, have been discovered in several archaeological sites. These objects are oftentimes representative of deities or spirits. As in earlier periods, nature and fertility likely remained central themes in the Bronze Age's religious practices of ancient Italy. The discovery of figurines, often interpreted as a fertility goddess, like the so-called Dia Madre (Mother Goddess), suggests the existence of fertility cults in Bronze Age Italy. [Music]
The Sabines were an ancient Italic tribe who lived in the central Apennines of Italy, in a region that is now part of the modern Italian regions of Lazio, Abruzzo, and Umbria. They are one of the early tribes that settled in the region and were noted for their peaceful coexistence with the Romans. The Sabines are perhaps most famous for their connection to the founding of Rome. According to a legend, Romulus, the founder of Rome, invited the Sabines to a festival during which the Romans abducted the Sabine women to secure wives for the Roman men. This event, known as the Rape of the Sabine Women, is one of the most famous stories of Roman mythology. As for their religion, the Sabines, like many ancient Italic tribes, practiced a form of animistic polytheism, which involved the worship of numerous gods, spirits, and natural forces. Some of the deities worshipped by the Sabines were later incorporated into the Roman Pantheon. For instance, Quirinus, a Sabine god of war, became identified with Romulus and was considered one of the three main deities of Rome, along with Jupiter and Mars. Feronia, the goddess of wildlife, fertility, and abundance, who was the mediator god of trust, faith, oath, and honesty, initially a Sabine goddess. Cunina may have been a goddess of victory or of agriculture and the harvest. The Sabines also practiced a number of rituals and festivals, some of which were adopted by the Romans. For example, Lupercalia, a festival held in February to avert evil spirits and purify the city, it's thought to have Sabine origins. Sabines were eventually assimilated into the Roman Republic around the first century BCE, and their distinctive culture and language gradually disappeared. However, their influence on early Roman civilization was substantial, particularly in the areas of religion, law, and military. [Music]
The Samnites were also an ancient Italic people living in Samnium in South Central Italy. They were known for their wars with the Roman Republic in the fourth and third centuries BCE, known as the Samnite Wars, which resulted in their eventual subjugation by Rome. The religion of the Samnites, similar to the other ancient Italic cultures, was also a form of animistic polytheism. We can infer some aspects of their religion from archaeological evidence. The Samnites would have worshipped a range of gods and goddesses. For example, the sky father Jupiter, the god of war Mars, and the mother goddess, which was a common trio of gods worshipped among the Italic tribes. The Samnites probably venerated natural elements and places, such as rivers, mountains, trees, and springs. Sylvanus, a god of nature and the woods, also known as Lord of the Wood, who's depicted almost exactly like Pan from the Greeks, venerated by the Samnites, became important even during Roman times, where he was equated and synchronized with Pan. He was also a fertility god, and in his festivals, people would gather around, drink wine, and have orgies. [Music]
The Samnites practiced a range of religious rituals, such as animal sacrifice and offerings, processions, and festivals. They also had a tradition of ritual vow-making, which played a major role in their military activities. Divination, the practice of seeking knowledge of the future or the unknown by supernatural means, was common among the Samnites, who practiced augury (the observation of the flight of birds) and haruspicy (the examining of the entrails of sacrifice animals). Both of these traditions would be absorbed by the Romans.
Villanovan culture was the earliest transitional culture from the Bronze Age to the Iron Age, which existed in Central and Northern Italy. This Villanovan culture is believed to be the precursor to the Etruscan civilization. The term Villanova comes from the village of Villanova near Bologna, where the first artifacts associated with this culture were discovered in the 19th century. The Villanovan are known for their characteristic burial practices. They cremated their dead and placed the ashes in urns, often shaped like small huts, which were then buried in cemeteries. The style of these urns, along with other artifacts like fibulae and pottery, are among the distinguishing characteristics of the Villanovan culture. Given the close relationship between the Villanovan culture and later Etruscan civilization, it is likely that their religious beliefs and practices were similar to those of the early Etruscans. The elaborate nature of the Villanovan burial practices suggests that they placed significant importance on rituals associated with death and the afterlife. The urns were often placed in a burial mound, and grave goods, such as personal belongings and food, were included. Like many other ancient cultures, the Villanovan may have practiced animism, the belief that all things, including animals, plants, and rivers, even mountains, have a spirit. Like the Etruscans, the Villanovan before them practiced divination, interpreting natural phenomena as signs or messages or oracles or omens from the gods. Religious rituals involving offerings and sacrifices. Thank you.
The Etruscans, who came after them, were a civilization that inhabited the region known as Etruria, or modern-day Tuscany. The Etruscan civilization flourished around the 8th Century BCE and was fully assimilated into the Roman Republic by the 4th Century BCE. These Etruscans were highly influential, particularly in shaping Roman civilization. They were known for their art, architecture, and urban planning, and they were one of the few ancient societies that offered high status to women. The Etruscan religion was complex and heavily influenced by Greek and Near Eastern religions. They had an elaborate Pantheon of gods, including Tinia, which was later equivalent with Zeus and Jupiter; Uni, later equated with Hera or Juno; then there's Minerva, also later synced with Athena. They also believed in various other gods: Sylvanus, who I've mentioned earlier, who was also worshipped by the Samnites. Divination was an integral part of Etruscan religious practice. Etruscans believed that they could discern the will of the gods through signs and omens, particularly by studying phenomena such as lightning or checking the entrails of a sacrifice bull, a practice known as haruspicy.
The Etruscans placed a great emphasis on the afterlife. They created elaborate tombs that mimicked houses and rooms, a reflection of the belief that life carried on after death. They decorated these tombs with frescoes depicting daily life, banquets, and other scenes. Funerary goods and offerings were also common. The Etruscans had various sacred texts used for things like divination and ritual practice. They also built temples to honor the gods, where rituals and sacrifices took place. These temples even housed statues of the gods and were places where people could go to worship and seek favor from the divine. While the Etruscan civilization was eventually assimilated into the Roman Republic, the influence of their culture, especially their religion, was significant.
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Aspects of the Etruscan religion were adopted by the Romans and became a central part of Roman religion. Priests known to the Romans as haruspices and sacristes carried out divination practices according to their specific disciplines. Notably, the Tarquinii boasted a dedicated college of 60 pontiffs for priests. Inscriptions revealed that the Etruscans utilized several terms for these religious practitioners: Capen (akin to Sabine Kupensis), the Maru (like the Umbrian Marin), and I sniff for a priestess. The practice of haruspicy was known to them as zix nethrak. The Etruscans assigned a specific magistrate to oversee elements considered sacred. However, every individual held personal religious rites manifested through participation in holy confraternity. Public events were always attended by these priests, and their role was to interpret the nuances of sheep's liver, which would be examined post-sacrifice. A particular bronze model of a liver, of religious importance, which remains a contentious topic among scholars today, features distinct sections that may have served as a guide for understanding the implications of irregularities found in specific areas of the organs. Etruscan artwork from the 5th Century onwards often portrays the deceased journeying to the underworld. Several instances, such as the François Tomb in Vulci, spirits of the deceased are denoted by the term henthil, translating to "one who is underneath." The spirits of ancestors, referred to as manes, which were believed to dwell in tombs. Deities in Etruscan culture were known as the Aiser. The Liber Lentius seems to differentiate between gods of light (Aiser C) and gods of darkness (Aiser Sioux). It instructs to make offerings for both types of gods during the Chi and SV rituals. A deity's dwelling, such as a grave or temple, was referred to as a thanu or Luth. Within these sacred spaces, one was expected to make offerings. Etruscan art depicts a trinity of deity players. The first layer includes indigenous divinities, such as Baltumna (primordial god), Usil (the sun deity), Tevir (the moon deity), Turan (a love goddess), Laron (a war god), and Maris (a birth goddess). There's also a death goddess named Linth Cell. Vons (the woodland god), Thelma (a trade god), Torms (a messenger of the gods, like Hermes), Fufllns (the wine god), Epulu (god of light), and then Heracles (the heroic figure). And underneath this layer is a variety of underworld deities, such as Katha, Lure, Suri, Thaner, Kalis. Supervising these entities were the highest level of deities, reflective of the Indo-European system: Tinia (sky god), Uni (his wife), and Nethuns (the water god). There's also Kalis (the god of time) and the Earth goddess Terra. [Music]
During the Etruscan Oriental Period (from 700 to 600 BCE), the Etruscans adopted Greek gods and heroes as a third layer of the religious system. Examples include Artemis, Athena, Heracles, and Bacchus. Over time, the primary trinity became Tinia, Uni, and Minerva, and they worshipped in tripartite temples, similar to the later Roman Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus. Lastly, a fourth group, known as the Dia Involuti, or the veiled gods, were occasionally mentioned as superior to all other deities. However, these entities were never directly worshipped, named, or depicted, and had to be accessed only through mediator gods or Acheres. Medea, the princess of Colchis from the Bronze Age, is a central character in Etruscan mythology. She shows up in the Etruscan version of the myth of Jason and the Argonauts, and she's known for her powerful magic. The tragic and violent events that marked her life, particularly when she was betrayed by Jason, she is a potent symbol of love, revenge, and terrible consequences.
The Etruscans had considerable contact with Greek culture, including its mythology, which is reflected in much of their surviving art and inscriptions. They adopted many Greek myths and gods into their own religious beliefs and practices, and it's possible that they knew the story of Medea and may have incorporated it into their own narratives in some of these ways. She is depicted on artifacts dating to the Etruscan period and the Etruscan language. Among the Italic tribes, it was the Etruscans who were the first to become familiar with the character of Medea, suggesting a vast influence of Medea on the entire known world of the late Bronze Age. Also, Greeks from Euboea established a colony in Cumae, Italy, and brought much of their culture with them. The oldest depiction of Medea that exists in archaeology is from Etruscan ceramics. Etruscans hold older Medea images than people of native Caucasus do. In a departure from the Greek tradition, the Etruscans elevated Medea to a level of cult veneration, associating her with the sun deity Kavatha. She was even worshipped as a goddess or demigoddess. [Music]
Distinct accounts of the mythological Golden Age presided over by Saturn, paralleling the Golden Age of Cronos within Greek mythology. Saturn's reign and the nature of his rule deviate considerably from that of Cronos. Cronos, following his defeat by Zeus, was exiled and incarcerated in Tartarus by the Olympian gods, while Saturn in Roman mythology sought refuge in Latium, which is Italy, after his own son's victory over him. Saturn is often portrayed as significantly less brutal and more jovial than Cronos, maintaining his popularity amongst the Roman people despite his fall. But like Cronos, he's associated with the dominion of time. This association may stem from the profound intertwining of agriculture, in which Saturn is the husbandman who holds the sickle, ruling over with the cyclical nature of time and seasons. The name Cronos itself translates to "time," while Saturn has a different etymology. His amalgamation with Cronos may have linked them to the concept of time, possibly influencing the name of the planet Saturn in his honor. Saturn, the offspring of Terra, the primordial Earth mother, and Caelus, the potent sky heavens god, can be compared to their Greek counterparts Gaia and Uranus. The genesis of this mythology and Roman tradition, Saturn's veneration in Rome dates back to the 6th Century BCE, with Romans attributing the Golden Age of agriculture and farming under his rule, an age where everybody had wealth and equality. This view portrays a nurturing and benevolent facet of Saturn's persona. The origins and connotations of the name Saturn remain ambiguous. Some propose that the name stems from "satis," meaning "to sow," aligning with his agrarian identity. Others suggest the connection with the Etruscan god Saturn and the town of Satria in Latium, reflecting a potential underworld funeral rites association predating his Greek influence. The alternative name for Saturn, Sterculius, emanates from "stercus," signifying fertilizer, highlighting his connection to field fertilization and the agricultural cycle of death that brings new life. Saturn's iconography often includes a scythe, symbolizing agricultural harvest and death, mirroring the dual nature of his consorts Ops and Lua. His aged depiction, possibly alluding to the swift passage of time, aligns with his festival's symbolizing the year's conclusion and the advent of a new year. [Music] [Music]
Disentangling the original concept of Saturn from the later Hellenizing influences proves challenging, particularly following the incorporation of Cronia, the Greek festival aspects, into the Roman Saturnalia. Intriguingly, Saturn worship followed the Greek rite with uncovered heads, differing from the traditional Roman revealed worship, indicative of the field Greek deities themselves. The Temple of Saturn, situated at the Roman Forum's outset, houses the Roman Treasury, Senate records, and decrees, and acted as an ancient bank, if you will. Only certain priests were allowed in. Despite the uncertainty surrounding its founder, the temple, believed to be constructed between 497 and 501 BCE, stands as one of the most ancient monuments in the Roman Forum. The Roman Festival of Saturnalia was held during the winter solstice and marked Saturn's agricultural contributions, characterized by role reversals between masters and slaves, street games, the selection of a mock king, and gift exchanges. Festival echoes modern Christmas celebrations, potentially due to the appropriation of Saturnalia following the Roman Empire's Christianization. After Saturn was defeated by Jupiter, he settled in Latium, imparted farming principles on the people, promoted a civil and moral lifestyle, and taught technologies and medicine, and founded the city of Saturnia. His influence extended to the point of being considered the first king of Latium, or Italy, the immigrant god from Greece, or in some cases, the father of the Latin Nation through his son Picus. [Music]
This Dis Pater, also known as Rex Inferus or Pluto, embodies a central figure in Roman mythology as a deity of the underworld. His initial association revolved around fertile agricultural lands and mineral wealth, aligning him with the subterranean domain from which these valuable minerals emerged. This connection fostered his identification with chthonic gods, Pluto or Hades, and Orcus. Over time, Dis Pater's association brought in to encompass death and the underworld, as the subterranean extraction of precious minerals and gems led to an association with the domain of the dead, overseen by Pluto. In the process of merging identities with Pluto, this Dis Pater absorbs certain mythological characteristics of the latter, integrating him into a Pantheon of Saturn's and Ops' offspring, alongside Jupiter and Neptune, who is a lot like Poseidon, the ruler over the seas. As a result, he came to preside over the underworld and the dead, like Hades, in tandem with his consort Proserpina, or Greek Persephone. In literary context, the name Dis Pater served as a symbolic, poetic mechanism for referencing the concept of death itself. In some cases, Dionysus, or Father Liber, would be identified with Dis Pater as a prince of the underworld. At times, Dis Pater was equated with the Sabine deity Semon. Julius Caesar, in his commentaries on the Gallic Wars, suggests that the Gauls traced their lineage back to Dis Pater, a manifestation of Roman interpretation. In this context, Caesar insinuates that the Gauls believed their ancestry to descend from a Gallic god who Caesar thought was Dis Pater. A scholium on the Pharsalia posits Dis Pater as equivalent to Taranis, the Gallic god of thunder, who's also connected to the Germanic god Thor. Additionally, regions such as Southern Germany were often considered Dis Pater's children, which connects him with the god Odin, the god of madness and frenzy.
A legendary figure of both Trojan and Roman mythology is renowned as the son of the divine Aphrodite, a part of Troy's royal lineage, and akin to Hector. Aeneas was a distinguished defender of his city during the Trojan War, as Homer relates in the Iliad, demonstrating martial prowess second only to Hector himself. Homer's work subtly hints at Aeneas's discontent with his secondary role, thereby giving rise to a later narrative that posits Aeneas as a conspirator in Troy's betrayal to the Greeks. A more prevalent version of his story portrays Aeneas as the helm of the Trojan survivors following the Greek conquest of Troy. Regardless of these divergent accounts, the common thread in all the narratives is the survival of Aeneas, enabling him to be woven into the fabric of Roman mythology. The connection of Homeric heroes to Italy and Sicily can be traced back to the 8th Century BCE, coinciding with the era when Homer's epics were believed to have been transitioned into written form. Greek colonies established in Italy and Sicily during this period and the ensuing century often claimed lineage from figures central to the Trojan War. Aeneas, in particular, was associated with various locals and dynasties, notably within the region of Latium. He was considered to be a son of Venus, thereby the Roman people were descendants of Venus. As the Roman Empire expanded throughout Italy, across the Mediterranean, Roman authors imbued a sense of patriotism, sought to craft a mythological tradition that would simultaneously infuse their land with historical grandeur and subdue an underlying resentment towards Greek cultural hegemony. Aeneas, in his role as a Trojan adversary of the Greeks, with the post-war narrative open to interpretation, was uniquely suited to embody the mythical precursor to the inception of Roman Supremacy. During the first century BCE, it was the esteemed poet Virgil who amalgamated the diverse threads of Aeneas-related legends into the enduring form known today as the Aeneid. The lineage of Julius Caesar, and subsequently Virgil's benefactor Augustus, professed descent from Aeneas and extended to Venus, whose son Ascanius was alternately identified as Iulus, drawing from these assorted traditions. Virgil composed his magnum opus, the Aeneid. This grand Latin epic featured a protagonist who not only epitomizes the trajectory and objectives of Roman history but also mirrors the personal journey and political strategies of Augustus. In chronicling the western odyssey of Aeneas from Troy through Sicily and Carthage to the mouth of the Tiber in Italy, Virgil underscored the virtues of tenacity, self-sacrifice, divine obedience, attributes he believed instrumental in the foundation of Rome itself. Composed between 29 and 19 BCE, Virgil's Aeneid narrates across 12 books the mythic establishment of Latium, precursor of Alba Longa and Rome, by the Trojan hero Aeneas. As Virgil recounts in the Greek sees Troy, the resilient Aeneas was instructed by the apparition of Hector to escape and initiate a significant city abroad. Mustering his family and followers, Aeneas secured the Penates, household deities of Troy, amidst the chaos of evacuation from the burning city. His wife vanished; her spirit later appeared to him, revealing his destiny to venture to a land in the west where the Tiber River coerced. Thus began Aeneas's epic journey with stops in Thrace, Crete, Sicily, culminating in shipwreck near Carthage on the African coast. Here he was hospitably received by Dido, a Punic queen. As he narrated his tale, fell in love, and he delayed his journey until a stern reminder from the god Mercury refocused him on his ultimate objective: Rome. Racked with guilt, he immediately deserted Dido, who subsequently ended her own life. Resuming his voyage, Aeneas eventually reached the mouth of the Tiber. Upon his arrival, he was warmly greeted by Latinus, the regional king. Nevertheless, several Italians, particularly Latinus's wife, Turnus, contested the Trojan settlers and prospective marriage alliance between Aeneas and Latinus's daughter Lavinia. War ensued with the Trojans emerging victorious, Turnus meeting his end. Aeneas wed Lavinia and established Lavinium.
The legendary founders of Rome, Romulus and Remus, are depicted in Virgil's Aeneid as direct descendants of Aeneas, the Trojan hero whose destiny in discovering Italy is the crux of the epic. The lineage connecting Romulus and Remus to Aeneas is through their maternal grandfather, Numitor, a former king of Alba Longa, an ancient city in Latium, Central Italy. He was the father of Rhea Silvia, the mother of Romulus and Remus. Prior to the twins' conception, Numitor's sovereignty was overthrown by his younger brother, Amulius, who exploited the wealth of Alba Longa's treasury to seize power. To preclude potential conflicts of succession, Amulius murdered Numitor's male offspring and forced Rhea Silvia into the Vestal Order, thus obliging her to maintain the sacred flame of Vesta, the hearth's patron goddess, and uphold vows of chastity. The paternity of Romulus and Remus is the subject of contention. Some narratives assert that Mars, the god of war, consorted with Rhea Silvia. The historian Livy contends that Rhea Silvia was violated by an unidentified man, what attributed her resulting pregnancy to divine conception. Regardless of the different accounts, the fact remains that Rhea Silvia bore twin sons in violation of her Vestal oath, which usually warranted a death sentence, often by live burial. King Amulius, featured divine retribution for the potential father, either Mars or Hercules. He chose to incarcerate Rhea Silvia and commanded that the twins be sentenced to death, either through live burial or by being cast into the river Tiber. Amulius reasoned that by having the twins perish from natural causes rather than direct violence, he could evade divine punishment. The appointed servant tasked with carrying out the sentence is moved by compassion for the twins and opts to spare them, setting them adrift in a basket in the river Tiber, where they are carried off to safety. The divine intervention of Tiberinus, the river deity, ensured the safe passage of Romulus and Remus, as their baskets were caught in a fig tree situated at the foot of the Palatine Hill. The first encounter was with a she-wolf, or Lupa, who provided them with nourishment. Eventually, the shepherd Faustulus and his spouse Acca discovered them and nurtured them, and the boys adopted their foster father's profession, becoming shepherds. During a confrontation with King Amulius's shepherds, Remus was apprehended and brought before the king. Romulus assembled a group of local shepherds to assist in rescuing his sibling. Ignorant of the true identity of the twins, King Amulius was slain during Remus's liberation. The brothers respectfully declined the citizens' proposal to ascend the throne of Alba Longa and instead restored their grandfather Numitor to the throne. Desiring to establish their own city, the brothers each embarked on a quest to identify an ideal location. Their differing choices: Romulus preferred the Palatine Hill, and Remus opted for the Aventine Hill, and this led to a dispute. They agreed to resolve their conflict through augury, the prophecy of observing birds. Each brother created a sacred space on their chosen hill and watched for bird signs. Remus claimed to have spotted six birds, while Romulus professed to have seen 12. The disagreement persisted, as Romulus asserted his victory by virtue of the higher bird count, while Remus argued he had won as the birds appeared faster. Romulus began to fortify the Palatine Hill, prompting Remus to scoff at his brother's endeavors. Remus's audacious leap over Romulus's wall led to his death. Remus's death is symbolically associated with Rome's impending power and destiny. The morning Romulus accorded full funeral honors to his brother. Corinthia Levy, the foundational event of Rome and Remus's death occurred on April 21st, 753 BCE. Romulus named the city Roma in his honor, setting up a governance system comprising senators and patricians. While its growing popularity, Rome attracted a myriad of inhabitants, including fugitives, exiles, runaway slaves, criminals, and outcasts. This gender imbalance led to the Sabine and Latin women's abduction during a Saturnalia festival at the Circus Maximus, precipitating a war between Rome and the tribes of Italy. Romulus emerged victorious, marking Rome's inaugural triumph. Despite their defeat, a Sabine king, Titus Tatius, attempted an assault on the capitalized citadel, which was unsuccessful. A truce was eventually reached, leading to a dual kingship, an amalgamation of customs ranging from calendars and gods to military tactics. This period of peace ended with the assassination of Tatius during a visit to Lavinium. Romulus then ruled for the next 20 years, gradually incorporating lands into Rome's domain, and this would become the birth of the Kingdom of Rome. Romulus vanishes in an enigmatic manner amidst a tempest or vortex. Several purported witnesses posit that Romulus ascended to the divine realm at the right hand of Jupiter, thereby metamorphosing into a god. Livy provides a detailed account of these occurrences, while Cassius Dio narrates a more sinister scenario where Romulus is brutally dismembered by a circle of malevolent senators within the Senate house. This gruesome episode succeeded by an eclipse and abrupt storm, which conjectures to be reminiscent of the supernatural phenomena that heralded Romulus's birth. Year of Romulus's appearance, as stated as 717 BCE by Plutarch, occurring when Romulus would be 53 years old. Rome would have a total of six kings before they would convert into a Republic, and the Senate was in control for the next 500 years until Julius Caesar.
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The dissemination of the cult of Bacchus in Rome unfolded around the second century BCE, analogous to the cult of Dionysus in Greece, from which it originated. It was a mystery cult, restricted solely to initiates for mystical objectives. The Bacchanalia, the Roman celebrations devoted to Bacchus, the god of wine, freedom, intoxication, and ecstasy, similar to the Greek Dionysia of the Dionysus Mysteries. Bacchanalia likely migrated to Rome around 200 BC via the southern Hellenistic colonies in Italy. As with all mystery cults, the Bacchanalia took place in stringent privacy, with initiates pledged to secrecy. According to Livy, primary Roman literary source, and the inaugurator of Bacchus, Paculla Annia, a priestess of Bacchus, established the first private and unofficial Bacchic cult in Rome. Livy contends that the initial cult was exclusively for women and took place during daylight over three days annually, and nearby Etruria, north of Rome, a Greek soothsayer of modest origins had set up a nocturnal counterpart, incorporating wine and banquets and attracting a zealous following of both women and men. Paculla Annia, according to Livy, adulterated the unofficial yet morally acceptable Bacchic cult in Rome, including the Etruscan version, featuring five monthly nocturnal worship meetings open to all society, age group, gender. The revamped ceremonies and initiations were marked by wine-fueled violence and rampant sexual liberty, where the cries of victims were drowned out by the clamor of drums and symbols. Those who revolted or betrayed the secret faced elimination. Cloaked in the guise of religion, the priests and acolytes violated every civic, moral, and religious edict. Livy further suggests that even though the cult had a specific allure for individuals possessing a flighty and unrefined mindset, such as the young plebeians and women, it permeated the majority of the populace and spread like wildfire. Even the elite strata of Roman society were not invulnerable to its influence. Bacchus's cult followers soon clashed with Rome's official religion, stemming from the refusal to uphold its cultural values. This culminated in the Senate, led by Cato, issuing a senatorial decree, known as the Senatus Consultum de Bacchanalibus, in 186 BCE to dismantle the cult. The steps taken included demolishing temples, seizing assets, detaining their leaders, and persecuting the followers. Subsequently, the Bacchanalia persisted as festivals, but the elements of mystery were permanently discarded. The Romans also adopted Greek religious customs and imported other gods and goddesses like Venus Erycina in 215 BCE and Cybele Magna Mater in 204 BCE from Phrygia. The Roman authors of the time consulted the Sibylline Books, prophetic texts guarded by a priesthood of women who lived in various cities in the Mediterranean and Mesopotamia. This priesthood, Quindes Semir Sacris Vacundis, consisted of two Patrician pontiffs who consulted these women for oracles. According to Roman tradition, the oldest collection of Sibylline Books appears to have been made about the time of Solon and Cyrus on Mount Ida in the Troad. It was attributed to the Hellespontine Sibyl and preserved in the Temple of Apollo Agarius. The collection passed to Erythrae, where it became famous as the Oracles of the Erythraean Sibyl. It would appear to have then this very collection that found its way to Cumae and from Cumae to Rome. The Sibylline Oracles, quoted by the Roman Jewish historian Josephus in the first century, as well as other numerous Christian writers of the second century, including Dionysius of Athens, who in a letter addressed to Marcus Aurelius in 176, quoted verbatim a section of the extant oracles in the midst of a lengthy series of other classical and pagan references, such as Homer and Hesiod, stating several times that these works should already be familiar to the Roman Emperor. Copies of the actual Sibylline Books from 76 BCE were still in the Roman Temple at this time. The oracles are nevertheless thought by modern scholars to be an anonymous compilation that assumed their final form in the 5th Century. They are a miscellaneous collection of pagan, Jewish, and Christian texts, which importance of future disasters that may illustrate the confusion about Sibyls that were accumulated among Christians of late Antiquity. The Sibylline tradition would continue through even the days when Rome moved to Constantinople and became a Christian Empire, and would continue until the fall of Constantinople all the way in the 16th century. The Sibylline Books will be the one thread that connects modern Rome to ancient Rome.
Major priests of the Roman religion, the Rex Sacrorum and his wife Regina Sacrorum, known in English as the King and Queen of Sacred Things, were the highest official status in the religion of Rome, and they were selected by the Pontifex Maximus, the high priest, who was voted democratically in the Senate. The last democratically elected Pontifex Maximus was Julius Caesar in 63 BCE. The title Pontifex Maximus is now used for the Pope. They had three major priesthoods led by three high priests: the Flamen Martialis, the priest of Mars; the Flamen Quirinalis, the priest of Quirinus, and later Romulus; and the Flamen Dialis, the priest of Jupiter. The Salii, or Salian priests, were leaping priests of Mars in ancient Roman religion, supposed to have been introduced by King Numa Pompilius. According to legend, Numa established the Salii, which honored the god Mars, while Tullus Hostilius established the Salii Collini, which honored the god Quirinus. An origin among the Etruscans is attributed to a founding by Mamurius, the king of the Veii. The Salii are also given an origin and connection with Dardanus and the Samothracian Mysteries, and the Salius, who came to Italy with Evander. An Aeneid competed in the funeral games of Anchises. Indeed, in Book 8 of the Aeneid, while in the land of King Evander, Aeneas is entertained by the Salii during a feast, who are commemorating the fame of Hercules. They would select 12 young boys to serve four-year terms as Salii, and when one of them left, they would replace him with another one. The Vestal Virgins were priestesses of Vesta, virgin goddess of Rome's sacred hearth and its flame. They were chosen before puberty from a number of suitable candidates, freed from any legal ties and obligations to their family, born and enrolled in Vesta's priestly college of six priestesses. They were supervised by a senior Vestal, but chosen and governed by Rome's leading male priests, the Pontifex Maximus. During the time of Augustus, they would finish their terms as priestesses and when they'd be given a pension, land, and often times strategically married to some Greek, Gallic, or Egyptian royals, which would strengthen the government in occupied lands outside of Italy. Political, military, and civil actions were sanctioned by the priest known as the Augurs, and the Haruspices. Historically, augury, divination through the observation of the flight of birds and lightning in the sky, reformed by a priest of the College of Augurs on behalf of senior magistrates. The practice itself likely comes from the neighboring region of Etruria, or Etruscan augurs were highly respected as officials. Magistrates were empowered to conduct augury as required for the performance of their official duties. Magistrations included senior military and civil ranks, which were therefore religious offices in their own right, and magistrates were directly responsible for the peace and the prosperity of Rome. A Haruspex was a person trained in the practice of a form of divination that checks the entrails of a sacrifice animal for omens related to politics and war.
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The Greeks slowly began to inhabit the southern region of Italy and Sicily. Thinkers like Parmenides and Pythagoras would bring Orphism and Ionian philosophy to the Italian peninsula. The Etruscans dominated culture in the North, and the Greeks dominated culture in the South, and the combination of both would make up Roman society as we know it. And that wraps up our deep dive into the captivating history of Italy. From the intriguing tale of the legendary founders of Rome, Romulus and Remus, to the mystical and fascinating cult of Bacchus, we've journeyed through these remarkable narratives that have shaped this extraordinary nation. Remember, history isn't just about facts and dates, but about understanding how the past has influenced our present and the diverse cultures and beliefs that have come together to form the world we live in today. If you enjoyed today's expedition into Italy's rich past and you want to see more videos like this, don't forget to hit that like button and subscribe to the channel. We'd love to hear your thoughts about what we've covered today, so please share your comments below. If there's another topic or region you'd like to explore, let us know. Stay curious, stay informed, and you have attained true gnosis. [Music]