Transcription
This talk is about Anna Freud's views about the instinctual drives of libido and aggression. In 1952, Anna Freud was invited to America for four weeks to give nine lectures at Harvard University. She didn't present written lectures but simply talked in very ordinary and straightforward language to convey the complexities of psychoanalytic theory. Luckily, her presentation of the lectures was recorded on tape, but it wasn't until 40 years later, in 1992, that they were transcribed into a book edited by Joseph Sandler, entitled *The Harvard Lectures*.
Anna Freud's lecture one, "The Unconscious," is especially helpful in describing her understanding of the hidden parts of our minds that determine so much of our emotional life, our motives and wishes, and the roots of our behavior and of our relationships, both with others and with ourselves. The unconscious is, of course, one of the most important concepts in psychoanalysis and one that we need to consider at all times as therapists.
Anna Freud stressed that the three parts of the mind—the id, ego, and super-ego—are simply concepts and not in any way connected to the brain, and that it's best to think about them as containing groups of functions. She puts these functions very simply: that the id serves the purposes of the unconscious instinctual drives that reside within it; that the ego serves the purpose of self-preservation; and that the super-ego serves the purpose of maintaining the individual as a member of the community, "the so-called cultural purposes within the function of conscience and moral assessment."
So now let's look at the function of the id. The id is primitive and crude, with no contact with reality. Anna Freud wrote, "that it is very much the same in everybody. It is what we bring into the world, what is inborn, what we share with everybody else, whereas our personal individual qualities are developed out of it very gradually in the ego and super-ego." By the way, these quotes are all from that book that I mentioned at the beginning, edited by Joseph Sandler.
We may think that we know why we feel or behave in certain ways, such as exactly why we chose our partner or our profession, but psychoanalysis shows that such things are motivated by unconscious forces. Anna Freud wrote, "The most important steps in our life are taken because we are driven from inside to take them. But when you find somebody set absolutely intently on a certain course, and when you find that no amount of reasoning will put him off it, you can be quite certain that he is motivated not for reasons that he knows, but by causes that he does not know." And it is a fact that the most important decisions in life are taken on the basis of unconscious motivation.
She goes on, "It is not static but dynamic, full of forces, the reservoir of forces in us. When we make a certain idea conscious, far from it increasing in strength, its strength decreases, as if part of its energy has been let out in the action of becoming conscious. The more unconscious an idea, the stronger it is." Now, I could add that we could think of it like a boiling, bubbling cauldron, with the ego having to work really hard to prevent everything inside from exploding out.
There is a barrier between the id and the other parts of the person's personality that prohibits the inhabitants of one realm from entering the other. This is the repression barrier. It is not possible to know what is inside the id, and we can only infer the contents of the id by the derivatives, or we could call them the associative contents, that arise from it. Such unconscious derivatives can suddenly break through the repression barrier to consciousness and surprise us, as in dreams and slips of the tongue and other parapraxes. Severe outbreaks of passion may burst through the repression barrier and lead someone to be sexually uncontained and/or physically violent.
Anna Freud notes that there are also "all the illnesses, such as psychotic outbreaks, where this barrier between conscious and unconscious, ego and id, gives way altogether. So on the one hand, we have a stripped control of traffic between the two parts of the personality, and on the other hand, we have sudden inroads from the unconscious."
So, what is in the id? It is the totality of the person's instinctual life, the instinctual drives, our urges, wishes, and desires that, as she writes, "come from the body and become represented somehow in the individual's mind and are felt in the mind as a claim." Every instinctive urge of this kind, whether it's a sexual wish or an aggressive wish or any of the wishes that belong to one of these two groups, creates an enormous tension in the personality, and the conscious part of the personality feels that tension. There is no peace until that tension is reduced, and it is reduced when that particular instinctive urge reaches its aim and finds satisfaction, as, for instance, when a particular aggressive drive finds an outlet or when a particular sexual wish can satisfy itself. What happens is very much according to the pattern of the great body needs, where the tension created by hunger is only satisfied when food is taken in.
So, the aim of the id is only to avoid painful tension and gain pleasurable satisfaction. Anna Freud points out that people sometimes think that gaining relief from a symptom that is bothering them by coming to therapy will empty their unconscious and that the troublesome thing in the id will be got rid of. Similarly, some artists fear that their creativity will begin to fail if they undergo therapy, as they assume that therapy will remove aspects of their unconscious mind. However, these fears are groundless. Nothing ever gets lost from the mind, and everything in the unconscious will remain, including the sources of creativity. What therapy can do is to help the individual to begin to recognize and understand better his feelings and urges and the likely unconscious motives of his behavior, so that his ego can manage his instinctive drives in a healthier way.
A very important aspect of Anna Freud's developmental thinking was her interest in what is normal, age-appropriate, and generally healthy, as well as what is pathological, age-inappropriate, and unhealthy. Both instinctual drives are sources of energy that can be used positively, constructively, and creatively, or negatively, destructively, and regressively. The sexual instinct is used healthily in mutually loving relationships and in protecting and caring for others and oneself, but it can be used unhealthily where there is sexual abuse or perversion. Similarly, the aggressive instinct is used healthily in pursuits which require activity, such as physical activity, studying, creativity, even love-making, and aggression is necessary for the child to be able to separate and individuate appropriately during development. But it is used unhealthily where there is destructiveness, such as bullying, sadism, cruelty, temper outbursts, or violence. Although Anna Freud thought that for each individual, the instinctual drives might differ in terms of their strength, she stressed that both were heavily shaped by the child's interactions with the environment, and when the instinctual drives are in conflict, they bring about neurosis.
The next section is called "The Libidinal Instinct." As we know, Freud became very interested in the development of sexuality from infantile sensuality to adult genitality. He gave the name libido to the psychic force of sexuality. However, this did not just refer to sexuality in a genital sense; it was also very much about all sensual aspects of pleasure, such as the baby's warm, bodily, and emotional feeling of being full of milk or being cuddled by the mother.
In 1905, Freud wrote, "A child has its sexual instincts and activities from the first. It comes into the world with them, and after an important course of development, passing through many stages, they lead to what is known as the normal sexuality of the adult. A child's sexual instinct turns out to be put together out of a number of factors. It is capable of being divided up into numerous components which originate from various sources. Above all, it is still independent of the reproductive function into the service of which it will later be brought. The chief source of infantile sexual pleasure is the appropriate excitation of certain parts of the body that are especially susceptible to stimulation."
The sexual instincts pass through the oral, anal, and urethral parts of the body until puberty, when, in Freud's words, "sexual instincts become subordinated to the dominance of the genital zone, so that the whole sexual life enters into the service of reproduction."
Initially, Freud equated sensuality with passionate sexuality, but more recently, sensuality has been considered in its sensory and not necessarily sexual aspects, in terms of the development of attachment, love, and of the self in the intimate interactions between mother and baby. In 1987, Gini suggested, "that much of what was for Freud the early expression of sexuality may be referred to now in terms of sensuality, namely sensual experience." Gini's emphasis on the importance of continuity and sense of being based on interactions with the mother echoes ideas by Bion, Winnicott, and Stern.
On the development of self, pleasurable experiences of sensuality, intimacy, and love are essential for the healthy development of sexuality and the libido. Feeling loved, held, and safe, at first in a bodily way, enables the child, the baby, and young child to establish healthy narcissism and a cohesive sense of himself as someone who is lovable and also able to love and have concern for others. This is the most crucial basis for healthy libidinal development through later stages.
Another cornerstone of sexual development is a secure gender identity. The early stages of this start in early toddlerhood, then become a major focus in the phallic-narcissistic phase before the child is faced with the dilemmas of the Oedipus complex. The development of a child's libidinal drive is crucially affected by the environment, mainly the people caring for him. For the healthy development of the libido, the child needs to be looked after by parents who love and protect the child in a consistent way and appreciate the child as separate from them. But parents also need to be able to set appropriately firm yet benign limits that will strengthen the child's ego and super-ego, help him to develop mastery over unacceptable urges, and enable him to relate in a balanced way with others.
If the child grows up in an environment where there is inconsistency of care, or many changes of caregiver, lack of love or protectiveness by the parents, or too little limit-setting, or limits that are too punitive, the child's libido will not be able to flourish and will be stunted. He won't be able to develop secure attachments, reliable self-esteem, or the capacity to value, protect, and care for himself or others.
Next section is called "The Aggressive Instinct." Freud originally called one instinct the sexual instinct, or libido, and the other consisted of the self-preservative, or ego, instincts, the prototype being hunger. Much later, towards the end of his life, he introduced a new dualism: that between the life instinct (libido, Eros) and the death instinct (Thanatos).
In his 1920 paper, *Beyond the Pleasure Principle*, Freud tried, in a particularly complex and intricate passage of writing, to find some biological evidence to support his new theory, but to a large extent, he failed. However, Freud still continued with this new idea, with Eros as the libidinal, sexual instinct, a life force, and Thanatos as the source of aggression and the death instinct. Freud continued to think in terms of duality, hence his idea of both life and death instincts. But his ideas were otherwise so closely linked with biology that the notion of an instinct towards death seems quite out of character. Every living creature strives for life, even though death is, of course, inevitable.
So how did he come up with the death instinct? I think he conceived of the idea towards the end of his life when he was old and suffering a great deal of pain from cancer, and when the Second World War was brewing. Some people think that Freud's pain and depressed and disillusioned state of mind, affected also by the sadism being inflicted on Jews and other minority groups by the Nazis, caused him to consider the possibility of a death instinct.
Melanie Klein enthusiastically adopted the theory of the death instinct, seeing it as the inbuilt source of destructive aggression, and this became a cornerstone of Kleinian theory. Anna Freud, however, who otherwise remained mostly faithful to her father's theoretical views, did not take up the idea of the death instinct. She wrote two important papers on aggression. In her 1949 paper, she suggested that Klein's adherence to the death instinct as the source of aggression had disposed of Freud's theory of the development of the libido. And in her later paper in 1972, she added, "It was never employed implied in Freud's dualistic biological theory that the life drive is the actual source of the sexual urges, and the latter was always acknowledged as being either hormonal or anatomical. So nor needs the death drive be the actual source of aggression."
Like Anna Freud, many psychoanalysts today see aggression as an inbuilt instinctual force that may be used healthily or pathologically, and they see no need to conceive of a death instinct to account for it. Anna Freud said, "Aggression comes to the aid, either constructively or destructively, of purposes such as vengeance, war, honor, mercy, mastery, etc., that is, in the service of aims which are dictated either by the ego or the super-ego."
The healthy development of the self, the capacity to separate and individuate, to apply oneself to tasks, to stand up for and protect oneself and others, to have mature relationships, to make love—all require some aggressive activity. Anna Freud saw aggression as mind-building, stimulating the development of capacities in order to enable it to achieve its goals and contributing to assertiveness, mastery, and self-preservation. Aggression, therefore, operates both in the service of survival as well as progressive ego development.
Anna Freud stressed that the appropriateness of aggression in any specific situation depends on the way aggression is expressed and the developmental level of the individual. The tiny baby who bites or hits the mother is not seen as intentionally wanting to harm the mother because, at this point, there is no self-object differentiation. The young toddler doesn't yet realize that biting another causes them pain because his ego has not yet developed the capacity for empathy. This is something they have to learn. For toddlers and young children, it is age-appropriate to have tantrums and use bodily aggressiveness, but not the older child. In adolescence and adulthood, physical aggression to protect the self or others may be entirely appropriate in the face of real danger. But when the physical danger is only imagined, not real, bodily aggression indicates something has gone wrong developmentally.
Heiman and Valenstein wrote, "Our psychoanalytic experience tells us that certain patients who show particular problems with aggression have had to suppress or otherwise defend themselves in infancy and childhood from environmental influences that were not conducive to the progression of their developmental needs for the normal expression of aggression." So, if the force of the aggressive drive is fueled by anxiety, fear, or frustration, probably due to environmental failures, or by physical pain, illness, and illness, this can lead to a destructive use of aggression.
Anna Freud wrote, "The infant's experiences of pleasure promote libidinal growth, while the massive experience of unpleasure promotes aggression." She also noted how the capacity for pleasure and for play can become diminished or missing altogether if aggression is repressed or inhibited. Although babies may be endowed with differing strengths of aggressive drive, the impact of the environment on the child's capacity to deal with aggressive forces is crucial. How the baby begins to make sense of his feelings and experiences will depend largely on the way his parents perceive and relate to him, which will be affected by their own internal world and experiences. For example, if the mother feels too plagued by the baby's cries and experiences them as an aggressive attack, her capacity to empathize with her baby and help him gradually to feel that both of them can manage his greedy demands will be impaired.
It's important that the parents don't give in to all their child's wishes and try to stop them from ever feeling frustrated, anxious, or angry. Anna Freud wrote, "Many of the most important identifications with the parents are made at most moments when the child is frustrated. When the child withdraws libido from the parents and builds up his own ego and super-ego on these experiences of frustration." Children who are frustrated, dissatisfied, jealous, etc., are unable, for internal or external reasons, to react aggressively to their parents, may turn this same aggression towards material things and become destructive of their toys, their own bodies, or other people.
Melanie Klein, Anna Freud did not see hatred and destructive intent as primary, and she drew attention to the fusion of ruthless aggression with libido when she observed the exhausting, aggressive, possessive love of a toddler for his mother, his maltreatment of favorite toys, and the pets that have to be rescued from his violent affection. She wrote, "We understand that on these pregenital stages, it is not hate but aggressive love which threatens to destroy its object."
The intimacy of the baby's relationship with the mother and her body is crucial. Gazing, avoiding, refusing food, and squirming when being held are typical signs of protest. Frequent self-directed aggression, like biting, head-banging, and hair-pulling, is unusual and indicates disturbance. Anna Freud wrote, "From this stage of development onwards, it is essential for the child's normality that the aggressive urges should be directed away from the child's own body to an animate or inanimate object in the environment." At a later stage, aggression will normally be used again in a self-destructive manner, but it will be invested in the super-ego and directed against the ego itself, not against the body.
She said, "The ability to attack others precedes the ability to defend oneself, and intentional destructive aggression in the service of defense is a learned response mediated by the ego." Where there is weak ego development and heightened anxiety and fear, physical aggression may burst out more readily. For example, an autistic child may erupt in an aggressive attack as an instinctive response to the terror of change.
Anna Freud stressed the many potential meanings of aggression and that destructive behavior isn't necessarily about destructive intent but may be about control and mastery. For example, a toddler would joyfully knock over a tower of bricks and then rebuild it. She also noted that aggression has many different sources: "Children in analysis may be angry, destructive, insulting, rejecting, attacking for a wide variety of reasons, only one of them being the direct discharge of genuinely aggressive fantasies or impulses. The rest is aggressive behavior in the service of the ego, that is, for the purpose of defense." And she lists the following:
1. As a reaction to anxiety and an effective cover for it.
2. As an ego resistance against lower defenses.
3. As a resistance against the verbalization of preconscious and unconscious material.
4. As a super-ego reaction against the conscious acknowledgment of its derivations (sexual or aggressive).
5. As a denial of any positive libidinal tie to the analyst.
6. And finally, as a defense against passive feminine strivings, which she calls "impotent rage."
So, Anna Freud suggests that some defenses are used specifically against aggression, especially identification with the aggressor and turning aggression against the self. In identification with the aggressor, the passive experience of being trapped, helpless, ashamed, and at the mercy of someone powerful and attacking is turned into an active, humiliating attack on another, thus unconsciously offloading the unbearable feelings onto them. Although identification with the aggressor is particularly associated with pedophilia, child abuse, and violence, where the perpetrator deliberately attempts to reverse the trauma of having been the victim of such experiences, it is also a defense used by less disturbed individuals whose libidinal development is stunting or has veered off track.
There's a wide range of types of aggression against the self, from being accident-prone to self-harm and suicide. A harsh super-ego implies aggression turned inwards, the super-ego attacking itself. Anna Freud wrote, "If in the analysis the course of the aggression is changed again, and what belongs to the outer world is directed there again and freed, I think that in itself lessens the severity of the super-ego very much."
Great as there are developmentally appropriate fantasies and ways of expressing, defending against, and dealing with aggression, one could develop or conceive of a developmental line of normative, healthy aggression based on Anna Freud's views. Behaviors such as unprovoked violence, sadism, contemptuous denigration, bullying, and wanton destructiveness arise from pathology, not health, and so cannot be included.
This is my attempt at a potential developmental line of normative, healthy aggression within a good-enough family environment and with gradually increasing ego development. This normative developmental line would progress from:
1. The baby's primitive bodily outbursts of frustration or distress without any actual destructive intent.
2. Bodily aggressiveness with intent to hurt.
3. The libido starting to bind aggression, firstly out of the need to retain the object's love, and then the empathic concern for the other as the ego gradually matures. Further defenses come into play, such as extending externalization to projection, including phobias and paranoia, turning aggression against the self, like accident proneness, psychosomatic problems, eating disorders, self-harm, and displacement.
4. The gradual replacement of bodily expression by the use of fantasy, play, and words, with overtly wounding words progressing towards more socially acceptable and sophisticated expressions of aggression, such as biting wit.
5. And finally, sublimation into socially acceptable activities, such as through verbal debate, sport, creative endeavors, choice of profession, alongside aggression being processed and contained within the mind and channeled so that it can be used appropriately for healthy self-assertion and the protection of others.
The next section is called "The Importance of the Fusion of the Instinctual Drives." During healthy toddlerhood, the child begins to assert more independence by actively doing more things for himself and wanting to do them his way. But he also wants to please his mother because his sense of well-being is dependent on her love for him. He faces a major conflict: that of ambivalence, as he experiences violent swings between love and hate, especially towards his mother. He hates her when she does not gratify him, but he loves her when she comforts him and provides for his needs. When he feels hatred, his sense of loving and being loved may disappear. Such intense feelings arise in relation to many age-appropriate developmental conflicts, like toilet training, where feces, a loving gift or a noxious weapon, may be used as an expression of love or aggression.
In the mother-child relationship, if the mother is able to tolerate her anger and hatred without feeling narcissistically wounded, without retaliating, and without needing to deny his negative feelings towards her, she offers her child a model for dealing with ambivalence through internalization of her capacities. He may integrate his loving views of the mother with the angry and hostile ones and recognize that the mother who is sometimes angry with him also still loves him. This integration of loving and hating feelings is crucial for the healthy development of both aggression and sexuality, as it helps the child to develop a sense of trust that his affectionate relationship with his mother will endure during moments of anger and during separations from her.
If the mother cannot provide a maternal, protective, and mirroring function for the child, the child is left feeling unsafe with huge amounts of uncontained rage and aggression that cannot be bound by loving feelings, leading to the enactment of rage and hatred towards self and others.
One of Anna Freud's major contributions to psychoanalysis was her balanced focus on the instinctual drives, object relationships, and the development of the ego. She applied this balance to her ideas about aggression when she wrote, "The fusion of sexual instincts with aggression makes it possible for the child to assert his rights to the possession of his love objects, to compete with his rivals, to satisfy his curiosities, to display his body or his abilities, even to obtain possession of his food and destroy it by eating it." When aggression is repressed or inhibited, consequences include feeding disturbances, weak emotional attachments, inhibition of curiosity and intellectual achievements, loss of pleasure in play, and in the adult, impotence. And when the aggressive urges are not fused with libido, they become purely destructive, criminal, uncontrollable, and unmanageable. If we translate this into object relationships, the natural aggression is tempered by the love of and for the parents and by the growing ego ideal and internalizations.
That is from her 1949 paper on aggression. She refers to what happens when aggression is not fused with libido. This is a crucial point. If the child's libidinal development is healthy, and he feels lovable and worthwhile, then he wants to retain the love of his primary objects and will tend to do what they ask and curb his aggression to please them. He begins to internalize their wishes and values into his slowly developing super-ego. But if he doesn't feel loved by them, then there's no motivation to do this, and this leaves his aggression unbound and his super-ego underdeveloped or unbalanced. The result is that his aggression is now uncontained and likely to erupt. The capacity to restrain destructive aggression is therefore primarily due to love, not fear of punishment. If a child is always punished for their aggressiveness, they will in the end identify with the aggressor and remain destructively aggressive.
In her 1949 paper on aggression, Anna Freud wrote this, I think, crucial quote: "Institutionalized children with multiple caretakers, traumatized children, and those who have suffered severe physical pain, neglect, or overstimulation, and children for whom fear has been a daily currency, may show the kind of uncontrollable, apparently senseless destructiveness otherwise only seen in brain-damaged and psychotic children. The pathological factor is found in the realm of erotic emotional development, which has been held up through adverse external or internal conditions, such as absence of love objects, lack of emotional response from the adult environment, breaking of emotional ties as soon as they are formed, deficiency of emotional development for innate reasons, owing to the defects on the emotional side. The aggressive urges are not brought into fusion, thereby bound and partially neutralized, but remain free and seek expression in life in the form of pure, unadulterated, independent destructiveness."
The appropriate therapy has to be directed to the neglected, defected side, that is, the emotional development, libidinal development. Now, this understanding is vital to technique with patients. Instead of seeing aggression simply as a destructive attack, the therapist thinks of the roots of the behavior, seeing inappropriate aggression more like a symptom of weak libidinal development or a defense masking underlying fear, anxiety, and pain. The therapist's attitude to the patient then arises from this way of understanding aggression, recognizing the damaged, vulnerable, frightened, helpless, humiliated, unwanted feelings in the patient, considering the patient's experience of feeling unsafe and insufficiently valued. The therapist thinks first about anxiety and defense rather than destructive attack, and the work will focus initially on the missing positive emotional bonds with important people in early life. If the libido can be helped to develop, then fusion between libido and aggression will follow, and as Anna Freud wrote, "aggression will then be brought under the beneficial influence of the erotic urges."
I will end with an example of an adolescent patient whose very undeveloped ego wasn't able to bind her aggressive impulses, both to others and herself. She felt confused, unloved, and utterly miserable, and she constantly damaged her relationships and the chance of having experiences that would help her to feel good about herself. In infancy, Lisa had lacked ordinary maternal sensuality, care, and secure attachment. Instead, she experienced inconsistent handling, ranging from emotional and sensory neglect from an anxious mother who often disappeared for days at a time, to beatings from her father, who was left angrily holding the baby. As a result, her libidinal development was stunted and unable to bind her aggression. Her ego development was compromised, and she was persecuted by a very cruel super-ego. She was often overwhelmed by anxiety, confusion, and distress and defensively developed a grandiose identity that was constantly undermined by the threat of fragmentation. She longed for but feared intimacy and defensively used provocative and aggressive ways of relating to try to hold on to her objects at a safe distance.
Some things she said during the analysis, to out her poignant cry: "I don't attach myself to anybody. I attach myself beforehand so that I won't... What am I supposed to do with my life? I feel lost." Or, "I wish my parents hadn't spoiled me, as though they didn't care." Or, "Fighting and provoking are my best talents. I'm not good at anything else." And then this graphic, despairing metaphor for a fragmented self-image and self and sense of disintegration: "I think of myself as a shattered windscreen. I suppose analysis is to find all the tiny pieces of glass and put them back together, but maybe I was born in pieces. Perhaps there just aren't enough bits to make a whole, and it's impossible."
Here are two brief vignettes showing how I tried to facilitate her libidinal development and enable her to feel worthwhile. One day, Lisa announced very provocatively, but also in despair, "Analysis is pointless anyway. I'm too crazy. Even a young Sigmund Freud would never figure me out." I took up her anger, her terror—sorry, I took up her terror that she was irreparably damaged and mad and a disappointment, in having an ordinary analyst, not the best, that if she felt she couldn't be perfect, she felt worthless, and if I wasn't Freud, I was useless. I deliberately decided not to address her omnipotence or contempt of me at this stage, sensing she would perceive this as a retaliatory attack and incorporate it into her urge to provoke a battle between us, thus fueling the sedo-masochistic transits. By acknowledging her sense of being deprived of the best, I hoped she would recognize that I felt empathy for the needy child in her and that I did not only see the vindictive one, as her punitive super-ego did.
On another occasion, she gleefully called herself a "spoiled brat and prize [ __ ]" then described two conflicting parts of herself that she called the willful child and the conscience. "As her conscience could set no limit, even though she knew this would help, she thought she should kick her willful child." Addressing this internal sedo-masochism, I said it was sad that she could only think of attacking the child part of herself instead of trying to understand and help it gently. "Maybe," I said, "she lacked a sufficiently strong part of herself to mediate between what she called a child and her punitive conscience." I was thinking here about the need not only for some change in her internal self and object representations but also her need for developmental therapy to help her ego to manage the internal sedo-masochistic tension between drive pressures and persecuting super-ego.
By the end of a long analysis, Lisa was able to say that she was now "more of a good than a bad person," and she could see herself as "a born of clay, which she hoped to mold into a shape that both she and others would like." Perhaps this shift in self-representation from the sharp, unyielding, and fragmented "shattered windscreen" image I gave earlier indicated a step towards a potentially healthier and more integrated self and enhanced libido development that could begin to bind her destructive aggression. Thank you.