Transcription
What was first contact like between Rome and India? The distant subcontinent had long been a land of mystery, reported by Herodotus to be furthest to the east of all nations, after which there was only desert. Here, it was said, the land grew in great abundance due to the many rivers and rainfalls, which in turn yielded creatures of extraordinary size and diversity. These included titanic elephants, tigers twice the size of lions, massive flying serpents, and enormous gold-digging ants.
Many of these stories only reached the West by way of intermediaries. However, the sweeping conquest of Alexander the Great finally allowed the Greeks to have a look for themselves. These eyewitnesses now told fresh stories of stunning biodiversity, extraordinary peoples, mythic histories, powerful empires, massive cities, stunning palaces, and more.
Over the following centuries, there would be a fascinating blending of Indo-Greek affairs. When Rome eventually conquered the Mediterranean world, it would ultimately inherit these relations. The transition occurred in the reign of Augustus, when it was the Indians who reached out first to find out more about their new neighbors to the west. What happened next would be a pivotal moment for the two civilizations. Unfortunately, it often goes overlooked in modern history. So today, let's dive in. This is the story of first contact between Rome and India. So, I'm super excited for this episode.
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The origins of Rome's contact with India can be traced back to the activities of preceding empires which span the great divide between east and west. For instance, the Achaemenids of the 6th to 4th century BC were among the first to develop extensive land and sea connections with India, even going so far as to control and extract tribute from its northwest regions. Apparently, word of this gradually trickled back to the Mediterranean realms. Herodotus, upon writing of the Empire of Darius, notes, "The Indians made up the 20th province. These are more in number than any nation known to me, and they paid a greater tribute than any other province, namely 360 talents of gold." Naturally, he was keen to find out more about such a distant yet important land. Gathering the usual mix of fact and rumor, Herodotus then presents the following report: "Among all men of whom hearsay gives us any clear knowledge, the Indians dwell farthest to the east and the sunrise of all nations of Asia. For on the eastern side of India, all is desert by reason of the sand. In India, all living creatures, four-footed and flying, are much bigger than those of other lands, except the horses, which are smaller than the Median horses. Moreover, the gold there, whether dug from the earth or brought down by rivers, is very abundant. There too grows on wild trees wool more beautiful and excellent than the wool of sheep. There are many Indian nations, none speaking the same language. Some of them are nomads, some not. Some dwell in the river marshes and live on raw fish which they catch from reed boats. Other Indians to the east of these are nomads and eat raw flesh. There are other Indians again who kill no living creature nor sow nor want to have houses. Other Indians dwell near the town of Kaspatyrus in the Pactyan country northward of the rest of India. These live like the Bactrians. They are of all Indians the most warlike. And it is they who are charged with the getting of the gold which is found in this sandy desert by gold-digging ants not so big as dogs but bigger than foxes."
Given such fantastic tales, it's no wonder that many in the West were drawn to the mysteries which lay at the ends of the world. Most famous among these would be Alexander the Great, who, upon sweeping through the lands of the Achaemenids in the 320s BC, would end this tour of conquest with ventures into India. This would open the floodgates for Indo-Greek exchange. Though Alexander would die soon after this discovery, the following successor kingdoms would keep this east-west connection alive as both Hellenistic and Indian rulers jostled for control of their respective border regions. Such geopolitics ranged from military invasions to diplomatic marriages, trade agreements, and more. Smaller-scale details are also preserved in the Indian historical record with references to Greek mercenaries in the service of kings and construction projects partially financed by Greek benefactors. Here, the Greeks are most commonly referred to in Sanskrit as the Yavanas, a loanword from the Persian Yona, which itself was a reference to Ionia. The end result of all this activity was a bridging of the two worlds which birthed fascinating new Indo-Greek kingdoms and cross-cultural pollination.
It's in this period of exchange that several important works were written on India by Greek authors who actually traveled to that country, including Democritus, Nearchus, and Megasthenes. Unfortunately, their full accounts have not survived. However, from excerpts preserved by later authors, we can see that figures such as Megasthenes tried to document as much as they could about the geography, environment, society, government, military, and religion of these lands. Such descriptions prove useful as an early glimpse into India of the 300s BC under the reign of Chandragupta Maurya, founder of the Maurya Empire. Megasthenes' work Indica begins with a description of the borders of the whole country, which was said to be quadrilateral in shape, spanning 28,000 stadia from east to west between the great sea and 32,000 stadia from north to south between Mount Ilumos and the nether regions where the shadows of a sundial supposedly switch sides. He goes on to report of the many rivers which flow across a land whose fertile soils and frequent rains bear plants in unsparing suffusion. Nurtured by this abundance, the wildlife comes in all shapes and sizes. This includes titanic elephants which dwarf the Libyan kind, tigers twice the size of a lion, monkeys larger than the greatest dog, and massive winged snakes that fly at night spraying urine that blisters the skin with putrid sores. Meanwhile, beneath it all run rich underground veins of precious metals: gold, silver, iron, and copper.
Megasthenes then describes the people here as being numerous and diverse, but generally of great stature and proud bearing who live modest, moral, disciplined lives. He also relays reports of "men with ears large enough to sleep in, men without any mouths, men without noses, with only one eye in the center of their forehead, with dog heads, with spider legs, and with fingers bent backwards." Some attempt is then made to recount their history. This involves an origin story of primitive times long ago when they had been visited by the likes of Dionysus and Heracles, who taught them how to grow plants, make wine, and worship, while also establishing cities, courts, laws, and a line of descendants that ruled India for several generations before being overthrown by democratic city-states. Megasthenes then recounts how in the present day the lands have been unified under the great king Chandragupta Maurya. His army is composed of 600,000 infantry, 30,000 cavalry, 8,000 chariots, and 1,000 elephants. His administration is staffed by many trained civil officials responsible for efficiently managing the provinces, districts, and villages with a charge to see after the welfare of the people and to maintain law and order. The king specifically takes great interest in the administration of justice, having established courts across the lands and ensuring that laws are enforced severely. Beyond the king's governmental hierarchy, Megasthenes reports that society is organized into seven castes, namely made up of the philosophers, the high counselors, the soldiers, the overseers, the cultivators, the artisans, and the shepherds and hunters. And finally, Megasthenes describes the Mauryan city of Pataliputra, where he resided for a time and which had for centuries served as the capital of successive Indian empires. He wrote that Pataliputra was a giant city located upon the Ganga, which extended 15 km along the riverfront and 3 km inland. It was defended by a massive wall and moat with 570 watchtowers and 64 gates. The royal palace itself was a marvel of design which reportedly rivaled the extravagance and magnificence of Persia's own cities of Susa and Ecbatana. Around it lay an extensive park filled with beautiful trees, tamed peacocks, and tanks which held fish of enormous size.
More is written by other contemporary authors which we shall not have time to get into. But clearly, there was much here to be reported upon. Thus it was that stories of these distant lands would have begun to make their way to Roman shores. Yet, for much of this time, the nascent Italian power was in no position to participate meaningfully in any exchange with India. It was only in the 2nd century BC, as Rome made its explosive charge across the eastern Mediterranean, that they would actually begin to factor into Indo-Western relations.
Initially, this was only a second-order relationship, where Rome began dealing with those who dealt with the Indians. For instance, as the legions gradually established control over Greece, they would come to blows with Antiochus the Great, King of the Seleucid Empire, who himself had just a decade prior returned from an Indian campaign. In the ensuing war, Rome would prove its dominance in battle and carve ever greater chunks out of the eastern realm. Around the same time, they would also begin to meddle in the affairs of Ptolemaic Egypt, which was in the midst of its own seaborn dealings with the distant subcontinent. However, it would only be in the late Republic that Rome was able to fully take over the mantle of its Hellenistic predecessors. This would be done under the reign of Emperor Augustus, who in 31 BC defeated his rival Mark Antony at the battle of Actium, finally bringing an end to the period of civil wars. In the aftermath of the Pax Romana came a grand effort to consolidate Rome's grip across the Mediterranean and see just how far beyond its grasp might reach. Given how much wealth was known to be flowing from east to west, it should be no surprise that Augustus began to make moves in this direction.
Yet, such efforts across the shortest overland route would be blunted by the fearsome resistance of the Parthian Empire. At least on this front, Rome would have to deal with India by way of middlemen. But the emperor would not give up so easily. New efforts were made to circumvent the Persians. In 26 BC, Augustus launched an expedition into Arabia meant to probe the frontier and seize control of an important waypoint along the east-west trade routes. Yet, this too ultimately ended in failure. Thus it was that Rome's best hopes for direct connection with India would be made through Egypt. It was here that the preceding Ptolemies had already begun the work of exploiting their access to India via the Red Sea. This came in the form of new commercial contacts, infrastructure, and administrative positions. Perhaps most importantly, several key ports were founded upon the Red Sea with linkages back across the desert to the Nile. The two most prominent, founded around 275 BC in upper Egypt, were Myos Hormos and Berenice. Such investments proved key to unlocking the potential for Red Sea trade. However, for a time, the Ptolemaic sailors were limited in their range, relying on intermediaries to bring in goods from further abroad. Yet, the ancient historian Posidonius claims that by the late 2nd century BC, the Greeks had themselves learned how to use the monsoons to make the long journey to India and back. Such direct trade increased profit margins and fostered more commercial activity.
When Romans took control of Egypt in 30 BC, they inherited this burgeoning route. The relative stability which resulted from the Pax Romana had a great stimulative effect on trade, not just within the Mediterranean basin but also with foreign markets. The Red Sea merchants were beneficiaries of this trend in globalization, and a range of evidence indicates that trade began to increase significantly. Indeed, the historian Strabo makes the following observation: "In his day, 120 vessels sailed regularly from Egypt to India, whereas previously very few made the journey."
Given this massive shift in the status quo, it should be no surprise that the Indians proved just as interested to find out more about their new neighbors to the west. Thus, it was they who initiated first contact, an act which would have taken years to plan and execute. Cassius Dio claims that a great many embassies came to Augustus, though only a handful of missions are documented by our surviving sources. However, even these contain vague or conflicting details which make it difficult to tease apart separate events. Nonetheless, according to modern historian Chichandra, he believes that the evidence points to four distinct embassies in this era. These include "the embassy from Puru country, which took with it to Rome serpents, monkeys, tigers, and a letter written in Greek. The embassy from Broach, which was accompanied by a Buddhist monk named Germanos. An embassy from the Cher country, and an embassy from the Pandyan Kingdom, which brought with it precious stones, pearls, and an elephant."
Surely, such a colliding of worlds must have been a fascinating event to observe. Thankfully, we actually have detailed narratives of one such meeting in 20 BC. According to Strabo, "At Antioch near Daphne, he met with ambassadors from the Indians who were sent to Augustus Caesar. It appeared from the letter that several persons were mentioned in it, but only three survived whom he says he saw. The rest had died chiefly as a consequence of the length of the journey. The letter was written in Greek upon a skin. The contents of it was that King Porus was the writer and that although he was sovereign of 600 kings, he yet highly esteemed the friendship of Caesar, that he was willing to allow him a passage through his country in whatever part he pleased, and to assist him in undertaking that which was just." Eight naked servants with girdles around their waists, and fragrant with perfumes, presented the gifts which were brought. These presents included large vipers, a serpent 10 cubits in length, a river tortoise of three cubits in length, and a partridge larger than a vulture. Cassius Dio adds further, "They also gave him a boy who had no shoulders or arms like our statues of Hermes. And yet, defective as he was, he could use his feet for everything as if they were his hands. With them, he would stretch a bow, shoot arrows, and put a trumpet to his lips. How he did this, I do not know. I merely state what is recorded."
One of the Indians named Zarmanochegas, for some reason, wished to die. Either because, being of the caste of sages, he was on this account moved by ambition, or in accordance with the traditional custom of the Indians because of old age, or merely because he wished to make a display for the benefit of Augustus and the Athenians. He was therefore initiated into the mysteries of the two goddesses, which were held out of season on account, they say, of Augustus, who was also an initiate. And then the Indian threw himself alive into the fire. Apparently, the Athenians were so impressed by this act that a tomb was erected for the immolated Indian in their city. Its existence was attested to by later authors who relay its inscription: "Zamonoas, an Indian, a native of Bargosa, having immortalized himself according to the custom of his country, lies here."
But this was just the first splash of the Indians in the land of the Romans. Over the following years, the pace of East-West exchange would only increase, bringing on a tsunami of change. The scope of what was occurring is well put by historian Chutchandra: "Among many things, the Indian tiger, lion, rhinoceros, elephant, and serpents were brought to Rome for circus shows. The Romans also liked Indian parrots. Indian fowls, Indian ivory, and tortoise shells were used for making ornaments and inlaying furniture. The Roman women wore Indian and Persian Gulf pearls. Indicum dye was prized as a color. Cotton clothes were used as articles of wear, and from ebony wood was fashioned furniture. Herbs and spices also formed a very important part of Indian commerce. Pepper, lycium, kusas, pedellium, sugar, and agarwood were exported. We were also informed that the Romans used eastern sesame oil and rice in their food, while Indian lime, peach, and some other fruits were used as articles of medicine. Many kinds of precious and semi-precious stones such as diamond, onyx, sardonyx, agate, carnelian, crystal, amethyst, opal, cat's eye, ruby, turquoise, garnet, and many more had very large demand in Rome."
All of this would have propagated out among the public to change the very fabric of Rome's material culture. While many were quick to embrace it, others derided this corrupting opulence of the East. The Stoic philosopher Seneca joined the chorus of critics that included Juvenal, Livy, and Tacitus by consistently railing against such perceived extravagance and decadence. As was often the case, these critiques were usually framed within a moral philosophy that valued simplicity over indulgence. At the same time, there were more tangible issues at play. After all, this flood of desirable products from the East had to be bought with Roman coin. Indian markets had a proportionally smaller desire for Western goods, leading to a severe trade imbalance. Now, this was cause for concern for those keeping tabs on the Roman treasury. Pliny the Elder writes scathingly, "And by the lowest reckoning, India, China, and the Arabian Peninsula take from our empire 100 million sesterces every year. This is the sum which our luxuries and our women cost us. For what fraction of these imports, I ask you, now goes to the gods or to the powers of the underworld." So, whether to curb moral or financial decline, something had to be done to change the situation. Even if one cared about neither of these issues, there was an undeniably huge amount of money to be made in taking a cut of the action. And so, it should be no surprise that after first contact with the Indians, efforts would now be made to launch Rome's own grand journey to the East. But that story shall have to be covered another time.
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